Educational Wealth: How to make

How to prepare plastic

Abdullah 0 How to make, plastic Wednesday, September 30, 2015

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<span style="font-size: large;"> Plastic </span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Plastics are synthetic resins which are rapidly becoming important in everyday life.

These are classified into two types: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Thermoplastics </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermosetting plastics </span><br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermoplastics </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> These
 are the plastics which can easily be softened when heated and become 
hard when cooled with a little change in their properties. When heated 
they melt and form a fluid which can be moulded into any desired shape 
and then cooled to get the desired product. Common examples are 
polythene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride etc. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermosetting Plastics</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> These
 are the plastics which undergo permanent change on heating. When heated
 they get highly cross linked to form hard, infusible products. Common 
examples are bakelite, melamine etc.</span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Methods of preparation and uses of plastics </span></h3>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Polythene</span></h4>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is prepared by the polymerization of ethjfrie under high pressure and in the presence of traces of oxygen (0.01 %) </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> nCH2 = CH2 ► —{-H2C— CH2)t- </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">It is used in the manufacture of pipes, laboratory apparatus, bottles, buckets, toys and electrical insulators. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> 
Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC) </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">It is prepared by the polymerization of vinyl chloride (CH2=CHCI) in an autoclave
PVC is used:

in the manufacture of rain coats and hand bags.

for artificial flooring.

as a good insulating material for wires and other electrical goods. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Polystyrene </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> It
 is prepared by the polymerization of styrene in the presence of benzoyl
 neroxide. It is resistant to shock and chemical action.

It is used for:

making hot drink cups, toys, combs, etc.

making radio and television bodies.

Making tiles to be used in covering ceilings and floors.

Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene)

It is prepared by the polyemerization oftetrafluoroethylene.
Pressure

It is used in the manufacture of non-stick utensils. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Bakelite</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is prepared by the polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde.

It is used for making combs, fountain pens, formica, tabletops and electrical goods.

</span></div>
</div>

How to prepare plastic

Plastic Plastics are synthetic resins which are rapidly becoming important in everyday life. These are classified into two types: ...

Home-remedies Curing of cancer(every kind)

Abdullah 0 cancer, Diseases, Home-remedies, How to make Monday, August 24, 2015

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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: #38761d;">Home-remedies </span></span></span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;">Curing of cancer(every kind)</span></span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">This is a home remedy for those patients who are suffering in cancer.</span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYJsth8uiN1Ys2xLWGQN-ynhbRHZW-MPwP67DauqRBsoIPMp9dJCVnq9IX14nAw4sew9w46FjUcWiOTrFxtmEu9I0ae4ofVSlnYVDWJXfb4Ooq0ZZ64vOQ4ZhXuzkJSUX0W6dZguFX4YM/s1600/honey.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYJsth8uiN1Ys2xLWGQN-ynhbRHZW-MPwP67DauqRBsoIPMp9dJCVnq9IX14nAw4sew9w46FjUcWiOTrFxtmEu9I0ae4ofVSlnYVDWJXfb4Ooq0ZZ64vOQ4ZhXuzkJSUX0W6dZguFX4YM/s1600-rw/honey.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Honey</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;">How to make </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #351c75;"><span style="color: magenta;">INGREDIENTS</span></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #351c75;"><span style="color: magenta;"> </span> </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">Honey                     = half kilogram</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">kalonji (black seed) =3 teaspoons</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">lahsin (garlic)          =one </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Brown goond(gum )= size about one chana(gram)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Heera hing (</span><span style="font-size: large;"> Asafoetida)= about one rice  size</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #990000;"><span style="font-size: large;">What is hira hing</span></span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE9F-vkh8eMBdkHEop2KRQP2mepCx-YtfrcZZbdyn_pp_k_1QVXeWnB0m0edsZX0EZTTjtn3wopMuKPhXagLiEZ1vfeAxz7bbBds5dQF8fhbAHKgh_amxSSTb2mU_O8zxYJbwhDXUf4eM/s1600/images.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjE9F-vkh8eMBdkHEop2KRQP2mepCx-YtfrcZZbdyn_pp_k_1QVXeWnB0m0edsZX0EZTTjtn3wopMuKPhXagLiEZ1vfeAxz7bbBds5dQF8fhbAHKgh_amxSSTb2mU_O8zxYJbwhDXUf4eM/s1600-rw/images.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Heera hing</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span class="orange"></span>
            Hing  is a "wonder-spice" famous for 
its wonderful medicinal and culinary uses. This pungent spice makes our 
food spicy and tangy.It keeps us healthy, fit and fine.It is a very useful 
remedy for relieving spasms and ingestion, nervous disorders, cholera, 
whooping cough and lots of gynaecological problems. It is a stimulant 
for respiratory and nervous system.It is very effective in pneumonia and 
bronchitis in children.</span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Procedure </span></b></span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></b></span> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Grind kaloongi(black seeds,Lehsan(garlic) ,heera hing and goond (edible gum).Mix this powder in honey.Mix it proprly.</span><br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">How to use</span></span></h3>
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Take one tablespone (Aik kanay ka chamch)of this mixture with one glass of hot milk daily subha(early in the morning) nihar muun(empty abdomen).Read words ya shafi about three time.Insha Allh Allah will help all of you.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><i><span style="color: red;">To watch all posts of home remedies click here</span></i></b></span><br />
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Home-remedies Curing of cancer(every kind)

Home-remedies Curing of cancer(every kind) This is a home remedy for those patients who are suffering in cancer. Honey How to m...

Home-remedies sikri(dandruff)-wounds in head-kharish(itching)

Abdullah 0 Home-remedies, How to make Monday, August 17, 2015

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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: #38761d;">Home-remedies </span></span></span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;">sikri(dandruff),wounds in head,kharish(itching)</span></span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWUT8TrpT2qcmWurRswONKBpZTV9iIqQ-iVoiimhZ2I9iAJAYwpz52SqPqiOV4UcKtvGKLib4rpyjdMXZKiIDHPiPPs7SHz-dPl8kzVZxRwUunm5s49yGFnjp3OdSdnRib1XgTTRTATgA/s1600/kha.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWUT8TrpT2qcmWurRswONKBpZTV9iIqQ-iVoiimhZ2I9iAJAYwpz52SqPqiOV4UcKtvGKLib4rpyjdMXZKiIDHPiPPs7SHz-dPl8kzVZxRwUunm5s49yGFnjp3OdSdnRib1XgTTRTATgA/s1600-rw/kha.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Itching</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: large;">This is a home remedy for those girls who  wear skarf. There are no lices but there is itching in their head.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: blue;">How to make </span></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #351c75;">INGREDIENTS </span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">Sana kay puttay(leaves)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">sirka(vinegar) of grapes or jaman(eugenia)</span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Procedure </span></b></span> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Boil in water the leaves of sana(panegyric).Then put sirka(vinegar) of grapes or jaman (eugenia).</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Before 15 minutes bath apply on head and then bath.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="color: purple;"><span style="font-size: large;">Shampoo for lice</span></span></b></h3>
<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Ingredients</span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1-Seeds of tara meera,</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2-papita,</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3-dahi (yogurt)</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4-bitter gourd(karela)</span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;">Procedure </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Mix all these ingredients and put in water of  kareela  </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">karailay(bitter
 gourd) ka pani(water), josh kay baad shan lain(filter it after boiling)
 two to three spoon shampoo will use daily</span><br />
Note<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">papita is anti aging and good for churbi (cholesterol)of pait(abdomen).</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b><i><span style="color: red;">To watch all posts of home remedies click here</span></i></b></span><br />
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Home-remedies sikri(dandruff)-wounds in head-kharish(itching)

Home-remedies sikri(dandruff),wounds in head,kharish(itching) Itching This is a home remedy for those girls who wear skarf. Ther...

Home remedies -Face glowing drink

Abdullah 0 Home-remedies, How to make Monday, August 17, 2015

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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #274e13;"><span style="font-size: large;">Home remedies </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="color: #274e13;"><span style="font-size: large;">Face glowing drink</span></span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmWYecuaVjip2oqSvUcoD4K2PinWoZAHWUkQFgjjy7IhhMJnUV8fvc0TwkqGLu6TexlmS3ods3q5vTqAivV6ACds5vN2qoIix4AzSVYTsrRrYQS6xvyep105b33LvommZl8xtX8nnl3JU/s1600/kangna.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhmWYecuaVjip2oqSvUcoD4K2PinWoZAHWUkQFgjjy7IhhMJnUV8fvc0TwkqGLu6TexlmS3ods3q5vTqAivV6ACds5vN2qoIix4AzSVYTsrRrYQS6xvyep105b33LvommZl8xtX8nnl3JU/s1600-rw/kangna.jpeg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">face glowing drink</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Face glowing drink is for</span> Skin tan ,for more pasina (sweat  )  in summer and hot days.
It is very beneficial for low blood pressure and diseases of summer.It is very good and tasty drink. </span><br />
<b><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Ingredients </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1-Imli </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">(bulleted)</span>(half cup) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2-Alo Bukhara(plum) (ful cup) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3- Khajoor (date) (Half cup)</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
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<span style="color: blue;"><b><span style="font-size: large;">Procedure </span></b></span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Take half cup khajoor,half cup imli
</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">(bulleted)</span>(Fresh or dry) and ful cup Alo Bukhara (plum).
Make it’s pulp in water .Take out its guthli.(bulb)Also use Adrak(ginger) .In one glass seven to eight leaves of podina (mint) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">For making pulp ,donot remove fibers of khajoor(date) and imli
(bulleted)</span><br />
<b><span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Amount to drink </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">You can take Four glass in a day .You can take it with you to school college and offices.
You can take it after exercise. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">To watch other home remedies click here </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/search/label/Home-remedies" target="_blank"><span style="color: #0c343d;"><span style="font-size: small;"><b><i>http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/search/label/Home-remedies </i></b></span></span></a></span> </span></div>

Home remedies -Face glowing drink

Home remedies Face glowing drink face glowing drink Face glowing drink is for Skin tan ,for more pasina (sweat ) in sum...

Thermometer

Abdullah 0 biology, How to make Saturday, March 08, 2014

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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> How to make thermometer</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">A thermometer is a specific instrument used to measure how hot or cold something is.</span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOM3PZxfHb_ucshHjlIVR3ezMoAvCZeey5kfZZHJ1S_ZwyeYNML7hQqI0I6BttmWJp_KX7UTMtsMgyqKzOhoASQ-tazBIbze5eSOJ3y-rtuuzMRmbAeGQg9_xH12pcf9y6mHr0IFJoGCE/s1600/thermometer.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="51" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOM3PZxfHb_ucshHjlIVR3ezMoAvCZeey5kfZZHJ1S_ZwyeYNML7hQqI0I6BttmWJp_KX7UTMtsMgyqKzOhoASQ-tazBIbze5eSOJ3y-rtuuzMRmbAeGQg9_xH12pcf9y6mHr0IFJoGCE/s1600-rw/thermometer.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">thermometer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> We can measure the air on a hot summer's day; we can measure body<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b> temperature </b></a>or even the water temperature of a swimming pool. Thermometers are used in numerous ways. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">To make your very own thermometer, first assemble the materials listed below. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Manual thermometer

Materials needed:</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1. a narrow necked bottle (a small soda bottle works well) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2. a straw </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3 some clay </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 4 food colouring </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 5- Hot plate </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6- Water </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7- A pot </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8- Ice cubes </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Procedure to make thermometer</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Take your narrow necked bottle and fill it about 3/4 full of water. Add a few drops

of food colouring and shake gently, being careful to cover the opening to avoid a spill.

Place a straw in the bottle submerging one end in the colourec water. Use clay to hold the straw in place. It is essential that there is an airtight seal between the straw and the bottle so be sure' mold the clay careful.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4Rg4PCsRlNdyh5xucByjpruDRFeaclwUGiGeSCL-4iZvvir3kSTXU_OuOPNxRtYfyLpN3JUrXYRbhRJEiExr6whBxHB63W4rOYr0KQIixG6OPND8pv7dxkd9EHM13zIU0l5EZFdzPAvQ/s1600/thermometer.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="288" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4Rg4PCsRlNdyh5xucByjpruDRFeaclwUGiGeSCL-4iZvvir3kSTXU_OuOPNxRtYfyLpN3JUrXYRbhRJEiExr6whBxHB63W4rOYr0KQIixG6OPND8pv7dxkd9EHM13zIU0l5EZFdzPAvQ/s1600-rw/thermometer.bmp" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">How to make thermometer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Now put your bottle in a pot of water and place it on a hot plate. Heat the water in the pot to the boiling point.

Record what happens now.

Next remove the bottle from the pot. Use an oven mitt so yoi don't burn yourself. Allow the bottle to cool somewhat. Now place the bottle back in the pot. Surround it with ice cubes and observe the results.</span><br />
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermometer </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Thermometer

it is an instrument to measure temperature of body and also atmosphere.

It consists of a capillary tube, attached with this bulb.

In an ordinary thermometer, the thermal characteristics of expansion and contraction of<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/mercury-and-pluto-planets.html" target="_blank"> <b>mercury</b></a>( Mercury ialso name of a planet which moves around the sun like our <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/our-earth-and-universe.html" target="_blank"><b>earth</b></a>) is used to measure the temperature. Due to narrow bone of capillary tube, a small change in the volume of mercury becomes significantly visible.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Establishing a temperature scale:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> For establishing a temperature scale we need two standard temperature.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1-Boiling point of water </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 2-Melting point of water</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> In order to find out the position of mercury thread in the capillary tube of a thermometer at the melting point of ice, we place its bulb in a vessel containing small pieces of melting ice after some time, the mercury thread becomes stationary at a certain point in the capillary tube.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> This point is marked by a file.

This mark indicates the temperature of the boiling point of ice.

In order to find out the position of mercury thread at the boiling point of water, the bulb of the thermometer is placed in steam above boiling water at one atmospheric pressure. The mercury thread rises and finally comes at rest at a certain point which is marked by a files.

The work indicates the temperature of boiling point of water.

Different scales of temperature measurement have been formed, which are as follows. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Celsius scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Fahrenheit scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Kelvin scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> <b>Celsius Scale:</b> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On this scale, the mark corresponding to melting point of ice is denoted as 0°C and that corresponding to boiling point of water as 100°C. The distance between these two marks is divided in 100 equal parts. Each part indicates one degree calcium (1°C)- According to size of this degree, the temperature range of thermometer may extend below 0°C and above 100°C.

1-Fahrenheit </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 2-Celsius </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 3-Kelvin </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On this scale, the mark indicating the melting point of water is denoted as 32°F and the mark for boiling point of water as 212°F.

The distance between the two mark is divided into 180° equal parts. Each part is know as one degree Fahrenheit (1 °F). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> If a certain temperature reads C in Celsius scale and F in Fahrenheit scale, the two readings are related as

By the help of this equation the reading of a temperature in Celsius scale can be converted into Fahrenheit scale and vice-versa.

Kelvin Scale:

-273°C is the lowest possible temperature. In Kelvin scale this temperature is denoted by oK. The size of division in Kelvin scale is the same as that in Celsius scale. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Thus the melting point of ice in Kelvin scale is 273K and the boiling point of water is 373 K.

If C° is the value of a certain temperature in Celsius scale, its equivalent value T in Kelvin scale is given by T = C°+273

Note the small circular symbol of degree is not used on Kelvin scale.

When water is cooled down, its volume decreases. This continues upto 4°C. When it

cooled further down, its volume starts increasing and its density decreases. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Since the

temperature of ice of 0°C, therefore its density is less than that of water. This is why the ice floats on the surface of water.

Give examples of thermal expansion from daily life.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Following are the examples of thermal expansion from daily life.

1-Overhead telephone or electricity wires between two poles are given a certain amount of sag so that they can contract in winter without snapping. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2-Two sections of a railway track are not joined together by welding. Instead they are laid with gaps between them.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Using fish plates fastened by nuts and bolts which are able to slide along the oval holes of the plates. When the rails expand or contract, they slide along the fish plates, thus preventing the buckling of tracks. If there are no gaps, the expansion of the rail will cause it to buckle

Iron girders are used in the construction of bridges and roof structure of big

buildings.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> One end of these girders is places on rollers so that it can move forward or backward

.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The temperature of:</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The center of the sun = 107K. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The out surface of <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/sun-and-its-rays.html" target="_blank"><b>sun</b></a> = 6x106K</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> When a bi-metallic plate is heated or cooled, it bends the curvature thus produced is

used to control the temperature of electric iron, ovens, refri gerator, air conditioners, fan heaters etc. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On cooling, the volume of water decreases the decrease continues upto 4°C after which the water expands on further cooling. So, the density of water is maximum at 4°C.

Normally the size of solid objects increases on heating.

The volume of liquids increases on heating. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The volume of gases increases on heating.

In an ordinary thermometer the temperature is measured by using the property of thermal expansion and contraction of mercury. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">On Celsius scale the melting point of ice is denoted by 0°C and boiling point of water by 100°C. On the thermometer, the distance between the marks of

these two temperatures is divided in 100 equal parts. Each part is known as 1°C. On Fahrenheit scale, the melting point of ice is denoted by 32°F and the boiling point of water as 212°F. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">On the thermometer, the distance between the marks of these two temperature is divided in 180 equal parts and each part is known as one

degree Fahrenheit (1 °F). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The lowest attainable temperature which is 273°C is denoted as °K in kelvin scale. The size of the division is the same as in Celsius scale. In this scale the melting

point of ice is 273 K and boiling point of water is 373 K.

If the value of a certain temperature is °C in Celsius scale, °F is Farenheit scale and T in Kelvin scale, these values can be converted into each other by the following

two equation.

°F= °C + 32 and T = °C + 273

</span></div>

Thermometer

How to make thermometer A thermometer is a specific instrument used to measure how hot or cold something is. thermometer We can m...

Paper Industry

Abdullah 0 biology, How to make, paper industry Thursday, January 16, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #274e13;">How to make paper </span></span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Definition of paper </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Paper is a semisynthetic sheet material which is a chemically processed product of naturally occurring fiber called cellulose.

Paper is a product of network of interlocking cellulose fibers.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Early History of paper </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The word paper is derived from Greek and Latin word ‘papyrus. Papyrus was a name of a plant which was used by the ancients for writing. Thin strips were cut from the stem, soaked in water and pressed together after drying to make rolls. Papyrus grew in abundance along marshy delta of the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/worlds-rivers.html" target="_blank">River</a> Nile in Egypt around 3000 B.C. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Making of paper </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The actual manufacturing of the paper started in China about 105 A.D. The name of the inventor is Ts’ai Lun in the history. This man prepared a sheet of paper using bark of mulberry tree that was treated with lime, bamboo and other fibres. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Raw material for paper manufacturing: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> There are two types of raw material. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">These are: </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Non-woody raw materials for paper making</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Corn straw,wheat straw,rice straw,sugarcane crushed waste,Rag,Bamboo,Cotton stalk,Cotton linter(Removal of waste from seeds after processing </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Woody raw material  for paper making</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Poplar(A woody stem,grow fast,)

(Euclyptus ,a tree called safaida)

Fur
Essential steps in processing raw material:

Cutting of raw materials:

The non-woody raw materials come in the precut state and are processed as such. But in the case of wood based raw materials, big logs are cut into small chips before further processing.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Dry cleaning: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Wheat straw is collected from the stock and is then sent for dry cleaning. For this purpose air is blown into the raw material, which removes unwanted particles.
Wet cleaning:

Dry wheat straw is then subjected to wet cleaning, which not only removes the remaining dust particles, but the soluble materials also get dissolved in water. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Screening of papers</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">In most pulp and paper processes, some type of stock screening operation is required to remove the over sized troublesome and unwanted particles. Magnetic

Pieces are removed by centri-cleaners. The major types of stock screens arc vibratory, gravity, and centrifugal.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The material is then sent to wet silo (vessel).
Methods of Pulping

There are three chemical methods of pulping of obtain paper making pulps:

Kraft process (alkaline)

Sulphite process (acidic)

Neutral sulphite semi chemical process (NSSC) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The details are given below: </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Kraft process for paper making </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The pulp is obtained by the digestion of wood chips by caustic soda (NaOH) containing sodium sulfate. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Sulphite process for paper making </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The wood chips are digested with magnesium, ammonium or calcium disulfite containing, free SO2. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">NSSC process for paper making </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Natural sulphite semi chemical process is dominant over the other two as described above.

In this process sodium sulphite cooking liquor (aqueous solution) is buffered with NaOH or Na2C03 to neutralize organic acids of raw materials. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Then the raw material is passed from the process of digestion either by batch or continuous methods. In Pakistan batch method is chiefly used.

Steam is given to the digester from bottom. Sodium sulphite liquor is injected at the same time to the digester containing raw materials. Liquor covers all the material. Buffer in it, maintains pH between 7-9. Digester is closed and put it into revolution at 2.5 revolution per minute (RPM). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank">temperature</a> provided is 160 to 180°C. Digester attains this temperature within 45 minutes and then automatically it gets switched off and pressure is released.
Blow tank

This cooked material of the digester is now blown into a tank called ‘blow tank’. From this section it is pumped to centrifugal screen so that the cooked and uncooked materials and separated from each other.
Pulp washing:

The cooked material from the blow tank is washed thoroughly with water using 80-mesh sieve to remove the black liquor that would contaminate the pulp during subsequent processing steps. The pulp is washed with required amount of water to remove soluble lignin and . It is then thickened and finally stored in high-density storage tower.

Lignin is chemically phenylpropane polymer and contains 17-30% of wood. It acts as plastic binder is cellulose fibers in wood and also give brittleness (roughness) when present in paper
Colour of the pulp obtained:

These are brown in colour and are unsuitable for printing and writing papers which require a bright white pulp. The colour of these pulps is mainly due to residual lignin. These pulps are then sent to bleaching unit.

Bleaching of the pulp:

In Pakistan, bleaching is done with chlorine or sodium hypochloride. Chlorine reacts very rapidly with pulp and most of it is consumed within a few minutes. The correct dosage is very important and enough chlorine is needed to achieve the required brightness. After chlorination, pulp is washed with hot water at 60°C and is then sent to the storage.
Stock preparation plant:

Prior to deliver the pulp to paper making machine, it is passed further through following three stages of treatment.
Formation of slurry:

The pulp is mixed with water to form a thin watery suspension called slurry.
Mechanical refining:

The slurry is beaten physically, so that its fibres develop good physical and mechanical properties.
Addition of chemical additives:

Certain chemical additives are added in it. Recycled fibres from waste paper plant are also added at this stage.
Paper Making Machine:

A basic Fourdrinier type machine is used for paper making and a brief description of its major components is given below.
Flow spreader

The flow spreader takes the pulp and distributes it evenly across the machine from back to front.
Head box

The pressurized head box discharges a uniform jet of pulp suspension on a fabric where special suction devices work for the removal of water.
Fourdrinier Table:

The paper endless, moving fourdrinier fabric forms the fibre into a continuous matted web while the fourdrinier table drains the water by suction forces.
Press Section:

The paper sheet is conveyed through a series of roll presses where additional water is removed and the web structure is consolidated.
Dryer Section:

Wet sheet of paper so formed is dried in the dryer section of the machine with the help of rotary d"iim. Water is separated from the fibre either by gravity, by suction or by pressing.
Calender Stack:

The sheet is calendered through a series of roll nips to reduce thickness and smooth the surface.

Fourdrinier Paper Making Machine

Reel:

The dried paper is wound in the form of a reel having final moisture of about

6-8%.

Fourdrimer machine:

The name of this machine is on its inventors belongs to England. It was introduced in mid-19th century. It can manufacture paper of all varieties ranging from heavy board to light tissues.

The machine is consisted of a traveling wire belt having small pores (mesh, sieve) in it. Slurry runs on this unique belt from its starting point the ‘head box’. The wire belt is made up of bronze and brass. Water is drained off through the pores.

After leaving the wire the sheet (called the web) passes through press section of the machine. Here number of rollers remove enough of the remaining water and make the sheet. From press section, the sheet then goes to drying section. After drying the moisture contents in the sheet remain to 6-8%.

At the last is reel section that rolls the sheet.
Paper Industry in Pakistan

There was no pulp and paper industry in Pakistan at the time of independence in 1947. The country consumed about 25000 tons of pulp and paper products per year and all of these were imported from abroad at a cost of 25 million rupees. The start o the paper industry in our country was very slow because of various reasons. Amongst the major ones being the non-availability of suitable fibrous raw material.

Due to high prices of paper in Pakistan its per head consumption is among the lowest in the world. Paper consumption in Pakistan is around 5 Kg per person per year. To make our country self-sufficient in this important commodity, we mus utilize everv source of raw material like non-woody and woody. Fortunately, Pakistan

of our pulp and paper industry. The efforts are being made to install more pulp and paper industries in the country.

At present there are more than 30 pulp and paper industries in private as well as in public sectors, which are manufacturing pulp and paperboard.

Agriculture has been one of the oldest industry known to man. Since 5000 B.C Chinese have been using animal manure in their fields.

Fertilizer is the natural of artificial substance containing the chemical elements that improve growth and productiveness of plants.

Natural fertilizers are materials derived from plants and animals whereas artificial fertilizers consists of manufactured material like urea, calcium phosphate and ammonium nitrate, etc.

Synthetic fertilizers are mainly used for making up the immediate deficiency of essential nutrient elements needed in relatively large amount.

The nutrients required in a very small amount for growth of plants are called micro-nutrients and the nutrients which are required in a very large amount are called macro-nutrients.

Urea and ammonium nitrate are the major nitrogenous fertilizers whereas super phosphate and triple phosphate are important phosphatic fertilizers.

Cement is a very important building material which was first of all introduced in 1824 by an English Mason Joseph Aspdin.

Cement is the material obtained by burning an intimate mixture of calcarious and argillaceous materials at sufficiently high temperature to produce clinkers which are subsequently ground to a fine powder. Wet process is generally used in the production of cement.

The use of cement for construction purposes is based on its property of setting to a hard mass when mixed with water

Paper is a sheet material made up of a network of natural cellulosic fibres.

The neutral sulphite semi-chemical process is often used for the manufacturing of paper because of the advantages in the chemical recovery and pulp strength.

The prime objective of all pulp making steps is to separate fibres present in the straw from cementing material called lignin, which is a natural binder.</span></div>

Paper Industry

How to make paper Definition of paper Paper is a semisynthetic sheet material which is a chemically processed product of naturally occu...

vegetarian diet

Abdullah 0 Article, biology, Diseases, How to make Sunday, January 12, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Vegetarian diet </span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Vegetations can cure Kidney disease</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> A vegetarian diet can help kidney disease patients avoid accumulating toxic levels of phosphorous in their bodies. Kidney disease patients must limit their phosphorous intake. High levels of the mineral can lead to heart disease and death.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> People who are on the vegetarian diet compared with the meat-based diet have lower blood phosphorus levels and decreased phosphorus excretion in the urine.

Protein in the diet has a significant effect on phosphorus levels in patients. </span><br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEheAIx3DZ-WYaUsx8_ywJyeafaO8BMVgzMynZiGn715m05C-KQD7HiYgqtJ-Ai6PJwRdc8aPYxsodsstMstMTXPLfWytVJTF7_7nbYGIUNCPCH0m6xoFohpf1FY2sclCn8uAacomDrQI/s1600/vege.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="255" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEheAIx3DZ-WYaUsx8_ywJyeafaO8BMVgzMynZiGn715m05C-KQD7HiYgqtJ-Ai6PJwRdc8aPYxsodsstMstMTXPLfWytVJTF7_7nbYGIUNCPCH0m6xoFohpf1FY2sclCn8uAacomDrQI/s1600-rw/vege.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Vegetarian diet</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Vegetations and daughters </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Dutch scientists found that women could increase their chances of giving birth to a girl by consuming food with high levels of calcium and magnesium, such as green vegetables. A diet drawn up by the researchers, 80 per cent went on to have daughters.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Foods rich in potassium and sodium – such as bananas and potatoes would be likely to help women who want to have sons.

Research by teams from Delft and Maastricht universities

They spent five years working with 172 couples, all of whom wanted to add girls to families – between them they already had 358 sons and just two daughters.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Each began a diet rich in fruit, vegetables and rice. At the end of the trial, out of 32 couples who completed the program, 26 mothers gave birth to girls and only six had boys.
vegetarian diet is good for the heart and over weight

People are willing to make major changes in their eating patterns .</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How weight can lost </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> People who ate the vegetarian diet lost much more weight than who eats meat. 
How to make Vegetatables soap for over weight persons </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Recipe by Rubab saleem  for lost weight</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">6 large green onions </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2 green peppers</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1 or 2 cans diced tomatoes </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1 bunch of celery </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Half head of cabbage </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1 pkg. Lipton onion soup mix</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1 or 2 cubes of bouillon if desired
Season to taste with salt, pepper, curry, parsley etc </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Cut vegetables into small to medium pieces and cover with water. Boil fast for ten minutes. Reduce to simmer and continue cooking until veggies are tender. Eat as much as you want whenever you want and at any time of the day. This soup will not add calories. The more you eat, the more you lose.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> If eaten alone for indefinite period, you would suffer malnutrition. Fill a thermos in the morning if you will be away from home during the day.
Diet for loosing weight

water melon is lower in calories than most fruit.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Eat your soup and fruit the first day. For drinks unsweetened teas, cranberry juice and water. All vegetables eat until you are stuffed with all fresh, raw or cooked vegetables of your choice. Try to eat leafy green veggies, and stay away from dry beans, peas and corn. Eat all the veggies you want along with your soup.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Bananas are high in calories and carbohydrates . Protein and calcium will lessen your cravings for sweets.You may have 10 to 20 ounces of beef and a can of tomatoes or as many as 6 fresh tomatoes . Try to drink at least 6-8 glasses of water to wash the uric acid from the body. Eat your soup at least once this day Eat to your heart’s content beef and veggies . </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">You can have two or three steaks if you like, with, if you like leafy green vegetables. . Be sure to eat your soup at least once. Brown rice, unsweetened fruit juices and vegetables. Be sure to eat your soup at least once this day.If you have not cheated on this diet, you will have lost 10-17 pounds. If you have lost more than 15 pounds stay off the diet for 2 days before resuming . </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The eating plan can be used as you like if correctly followed. It will clean your system of impurities and give you a feeling of well being . After only a few days of this process, you will feel lighter by at least 10-17 pounds and have an abundance of energy. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Continue on this plan on as long as you wish and feel the difference. This diet is a fast fat burning diet and the secret is that you will burn more calories than you take in. It will flush your system of impurities and give you a feeling of well being. This diet does not lend itself to drinking. Any alcohol beverages at any time, because of the removal of fat built up in your system.

</span></div>

vegetarian diet

Vegetarian diet Vegetations can cure Kidney disease A vegetarian diet can help kidney disease patients avoid accumulating toxic levels...

How to preserve food

Abdullah 0 biology, How to make Sunday, January 05, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The proper storage  of food</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The proper storage of food for a longer use has long been an important field for scientific investigation. Of the foods available to mankind few can be stored for any length of time without special processing and handling. Delay in the use of fresh food alters its freshness, palatability and nutritive value. Food stored without adequate process spoils and becomes unfit for use.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Need to Preserve Food </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">With the industrial revolution and the increase in the urbanization human beings have become dependant on food, prepared, shipped and stored by others. Such food stuffs are treated with chemical preservatives to retard spoilage resulting either from the growth of moulds (fungi) or bacteria or by the process of oxidation. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causes of Food Spoilage</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> In general, food spoilage is mainly due to micro-organism (bacteria, moulds, and yeasts) and to a lesser extent by chemical reactions catalyzed by enzymes. </span><br />
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<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbcTh3v-ul3jvk33h85iaFHei909WEOxt5LU0gYUEQasERfOzhbmIap2q9hsw4wp6Eaga3aucsNoB48yIB9cTWGMEgSGAU0qRGjhE71NM7RfovxC8g1eqMOlJwEwxFc2jm9Y5I7yBLVl4/s1600/food.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbcTh3v-ul3jvk33h85iaFHei909WEOxt5LU0gYUEQasERfOzhbmIap2q9hsw4wp6Eaga3aucsNoB48yIB9cTWGMEgSGAU0qRGjhE71NM7RfovxC8g1eqMOlJwEwxFc2jm9Y5I7yBLVl4/s1600-rw/food.png" width="215" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">preservation of food</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Water and Moisture (cause of food spoilage)</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Water is closely linked to food spoilage. Many agricultural products of low moisture contents, such as corn and soyabean, if exposed to atmosphere of 75% relative humidity or higher may take up enough moisture content to permit the growth of moulds and bacteria.

Foodstuffs with moisture below the critical level required for microbial growth, cannot be stored in a warm climate where high humidity may persist fora long period.

The release of water from one piece of decaying food can increase the rate of decay of other foods close to it. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Microbial Activities (cause of food spoilage)</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Bacteria, yeast and moulds are often responsible for food spoilage. Most kinds of food are subject to microbial spoilage unless special methods are used for their preservation. Fish is spoiled chiefly by microbial growth. Undesirable changes in poultry and dairy products are brought about by the growth of micro-organisms. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Chemical Changes</span><span style="font-size: large;">(cause of food spoilage)</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Chemical changes are also responsible for food spoilage. These changes are brought by enzymes. These enzymes may have their origin in the food material or may be produced by micro-organisms such as yeast, moulds and bacteria which contaminate the product.

The rancidity of fats and oils and the browning of fruits and vegetable are examples of food spoilage due to chemical or biochemical changes. The browning of fruit tissues is especially noticeable in apples. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Methods of Preservation of Food</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> A practical method of food preservation must retain, as far as possible, the original characteristic of food and it must not be harmful for health. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Removal of Moisture(Preservation of Food)</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">The drying of food is an ancient method for its preservation. The

presence of even a small amount of moisture will permit enzyme or microbial action which results in spoilage. During drying process many micro organisms are destroyed by heat. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Addition of Salt or Sugar</span><span style="font-size: large;">(Preservation of Food)</span></h3>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The rate of food decomposition can be slowed down by using

common salt or sugar. The addition of these substances increase the solute concentration in water present in food. If the cell of a micro-organism is in contact with the concentrated salt or sugar solution, it would lose water to the surrounding food. As a result the micro-organism would not be capable of multiplication and therefore would not cause food spoilage. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Changing Temperature</span><span style="font-size: large;">(Preservation of Food)</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Food can be preserved by increasing or decreasing temperature. At high temperature bacterial cells and spores are destroyed. At low <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>temperature</b></a>, both the growth of micro-organisms as well as the rate of chemical reaction which cause food spoilage are retarded.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Chemical Additives for Food preservation</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Chemical additives for food are chemical substances which are added in small amounts to preserve it. Salts of calcium, magnesium, potassium and sodium are all commonly used as food additives.

Sodium sulphite and potassium metabisulphate are used as preservatives because they prevent the growth of micro-organisms.

Sodium dihydrogen phosphate is used to improve the texture of foods and magnesium hydroxide is used as an alkali to reduce acidity in foods.

Common salt is added to preserve meat and fish, propanoic acid, benzoic acid and their salts are added in bread and cheese as mould and yeast inhibitors. Sulphur dioxide or salts of sulphurous acid are added to preserve dry fruits, jams and jellies. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Canning of Food for food preservation</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Canning is also a way to preserve food for longer time. Now-a-days foods to be canned are placed in thermally sealed containers and then heat processed. Severe heat treatment destroys the spores of harmful organisms present in food.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Method of the Preservation of Fruits and Vegetables </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Before packing the vegetables and fruits in the boxes, they are peeled, boiled and dried. Mixing of common salt preserves the dried vegetables for a longer period of time. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to makeTomato Ketchup </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> For the preparation of “Tomato Ketchup” tomatoes are boiled, peeled and then passed through the sieves to separate the seeds and the resultant juice is concentrated by heating. For each kilogram of tomato juice, 1/4 kilogram of sugar is added. It is cooked for few minutes and then salt, chillies and spices are added according to the taste. At the end, add 0.1% sodium metabisulphate and mix it thoroughly. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Peservation of of Jam and Jelly</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The preservation of fruit in the form of jams, jellies and marmalades is an older method than canning and freezing. Many fruits contain enough pectin to make a gel product.

When sugar and acids are added to the fruits in right proportion and heat is applied, the fruits can be preserved without sterilization which is necessary in canning.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Preservation of Food by Irradiation </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Gamma rays have a high preservation power. If foodstuffs are irradiated by a beam of gamma rays, bacteria that may be present are killed. In the absence of bacteria, the food will not be spoiled for a long time especially if it is stored in air tight containers.</span></div>
</div>

How to preserve food

The proper storage of food The proper storage of food for a longer use has long been an important field for scientific investigation. O...

Invisible ink

Abdullah 0 chemistry, How to make Sunday, January 05, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Invisible ink</span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Preparation of tannic acid </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">In the manufacture of inks tannic acid is mixed with ferrous sulpate forming ferrous tannate which is nearly colourless but is readily oxidized to black insoluble ferric tannate by atmospheric oxygen.

Inks contain a protective colloid such as gum Arabic to make them more durable. A blue dye is also added in order to give the ink a dark colour.

When ink marks are made upon paper the colour is at first due to the dye, but

as soon as the ferrous tannate is oxidized an intense and lasting black colour is produced. Details of manufacture varied greatly with the type of ink being produced. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Blue Black Fountain Pen Ink </span></h3>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Material </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Tannic acid 75g

Gallic acid 30g

Ferrous sulphate 100g

Hydrochloric acid (dilute) 75cm3

Gum Arabic 60g

Carbolic acid 15g

Phenol blue 15g

Distilled water to make 3dm3 </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> How to make Blue Black Ink </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">This ink is used to write on the paper.It is most famous ink </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Preparation </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Dissolve tannic and gallic acid in 150 cm3 of warm water. Dissolve ferrous sulphate and gum Arabic in 600cm3 distilled water. Add the hydrochloric acid to it and immediately mix the two solutions. Add the carbolic acid, phenol blue and sufficient water to produce 3dm3 solution. Keep aside for a fortnight and then filter. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Royal Blue Pen Ink </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Ink blue A.S (colour) 15g

Methyl violet 5g

Ethylene glycol 20cm3

Acetone 10cm3

Phenol 1g

Carboxy methyl cellulose 1000cm3

Dissolve carboxy methyl cellulose in distilled water and keep it ready for use. In another pot dissolve the colours in 200cm3 of warm distilled . When the colours have completely dissolved, filter the solution. Mix this solution with the carboxy methyl cellulose solution and add the remaining ingredients. Stir will and keep aside for 10 days, then filter. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Ink Used to Write on Glass Surface </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> With this ink we can write on the glass surface easily.Glass surface can destroy with common ink.
Raw Material

Chromic Oxide 10 parts

Lead borate 05 parts

Water 0.5 parts

Glycerine 0.5 parts

Alcohol 0.5 parts </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Method of Preparation</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> An effective and permanent glass marketing ink is made by mixing 10 parts of chromic oxide with 5 parts of powdered lead borate, add this mixture to a solution containing water, alcohol and glycerine.

After applying the ink with a pen, the glass is warmed in the yellow flameof a Bunsen burner then heated to red hot in a blue flame. The glass is finally allowed to cool using the yellow flame to lower the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>temperature</b></a> gradually.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> How to make Invisible Ink </span></h3>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Raw Materials </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mercurous Nitrate 10 Parts

Water 100 Parts

Ammonia 30% 50 Parts </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Method of Preparation</span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Dissolve 10 parts of mercurous nitrate in 100 parts of water. Write down with this solution on a white paper. On drying the solution, the writing will not be visible. Now add 5 parts of 30% ammonia solution in a jar. On putting the written statement over the jar of ammonia solution, the writing will be visible due to the formation of black precipitate.</span></div>

Invisible ink

How to make Invisible ink Preparation of tannic acid In the manufacture of inks tannic acid is mixed with ferrous sulpate forming ferro...

paint and polish

Abdullah 0 chemistry, How to make Saturday, January 04, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Paints </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Paint is defined as a mixture of pigment and binding medium which can be spread to a dry thin film to decorate or protect a surface.</span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht4c6ngiADfX73ToJC3RRgMAbhA6amX1DDCBaIi5CmDxVsMhCSEPaP7NYtIANjPvCrZFEa6ytk5RbD4s7cex_G-wws4aAScPo0q-nOEY5PvA6R7q7JduYz3nNBLAfwg-c1GQLhjMIiIzI/s1600/How+to+make+shoe+polish.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEht4c6ngiADfX73ToJC3RRgMAbhA6amX1DDCBaIi5CmDxVsMhCSEPaP7NYtIANjPvCrZFEa6ytk5RbD4s7cex_G-wws4aAScPo0q-nOEY5PvA6R7q7JduYz3nNBLAfwg-c1GQLhjMIiIzI/s1600-rw/How+to+make+shoe+polish.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Shoe polish</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">  Raw Materials for Oil Paint </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> A paint is basically a mixture of the following types of ingredients. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Pigment </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> A pigment gives body and colour to the paint. Pigments can have different colours. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Drying oil </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">A drying oil is a liquid which absorbs oxygen as it dries up. It helps to spread the paint on a surface. Turpentine oil and tung oil or china wood oil are most common drying oils. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thinner</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is used to make the paint to spread easily. Usually petrol, xylol, benzene, turpentine oil, naphtha and rosin spirit are used as thinners.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Drying agent </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> A chemical that speeds up drying. It acts as an oxygen carrier and used in small quantities from 0.5% to 2% of the oil.Mn02, Pb02, PbO are the common driers used. They accelerate the drying of the film through oxidation. Paints containing lead are dangerous because they flake off and mix with dust. This is particularly a problem in homes where the paint is old. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Fillers: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> China clay or BaS04 are added to the pigments to increase their durability
.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Making of Paints</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Paint making is a matter of dispersing pigments in liquids like resins and solvents. For oil based paints, the dispersion of the pigments in the liquid is done by grinding them together. The dry material with some oil are added to the ball mill which is then rotated for hours. The grinding action of the balls against each other produces a smooth dispersion of the paint. The paint is then filtered to remove any coarse particles. The final products is packed in metal canes. 
Water paints or Distempers

These are water paints containing pigments like ZnO, glue and resin. A good paint should resist the effects of light and heat. It should resist the action of acids, alkalies and the atmospheric oxygen. It should not be affected by the atmospheric changes such as rain and seasonal temperature variation. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Varnish </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Varnish is a colloidal solution used to protect and decorate wood surfaces. It dries by evaporation, oxidation and polymerization.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Raw Materials of varnish</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">One part Hard dark amber gum China wood oil Parts Linseed oil Two Parts Spirit seven Parts 
 Preparation of Varnish

Amber gum is heated to a temperature of 650°C in an iron kettle. It is then cooled to 500°C and china wood oil is added. The mixture is again heated to 560°C and linseed oil is added. It is cooled to room temperature and spirit is added. This varnish will dry to touch in about 4 hours and hard in about 8 hours. Varnish differs from paints in the sense that varnish does not contain plastisizers and pigments. Spirit varnishes are those in which a volatile liquid such as alcohol is used as a solvent for the resin. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">How to make Polish </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Generally black and dark brown shoe polishes are used for the protection of shoes from water and weather. Table Constituents of Dark Brown Polish 1 Bismarck Brown 15% 2 Pearl Ash (Potassium Carbonate) 57.5% 3 Turpentine Oil 17.5% 4 Palm Oil or Soap 10% 5 Optical Brightner As required 
 Pure Bee's Wax

It maintains the softness and shine in the polish. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">CarnaubaWax </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> It prevents the extra softness of the shoe polish and gives it proper hardness. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Turpentine Oil </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">It keeps the softness of shoe polish and prevents it from drying. More over it helps in the absorption of shoe polish in leather. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Preparation of Shoe Polish</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Pure bee's wax is heated slowly on a water-bath. As soon as it is melted turpentine oil is added to it. The mixture is homogenized and cooled with stirring. Caustic soda is heated in a minimum quantity of water to make a lye. This lye is added to the above mixture with vigorous stirring. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">When it becomes thick nigrosine oil is added to it and stirring continued till it gains the desired thickness. In case of dark brown polish, a concentrated solution of bismarck brown, and pearl ash (potassium carbonate) is prepared in water and other components are added with stirring. Shoe polish is covered with a thin foil of zinc or aluminium to prevent any loss of turpentine oil.</span></div>

paint and polish

How to make Paints Paint is defined as a mixture of pigment and binding medium which can be spread to a dry thin film to decorate or pr...

How to prepare soaps

Abdullah 0 chemistry, How to make, soaps Saturday, January 04, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: purple;">Preparation of soap </span></span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Soaps are the metal (commonly sodium or potassium) salts of long chain fatty acids mainly palmitic (C15H31COOH), stearic (C17H35COOH) and oleic (C17H33COOH) acids. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Raw Materials</span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Tallow is the principal fatty material in soap making. Other than tallow any vegetable oil, e.g; cotton seed oil, linseed oil or palm oil may also be used.

Caustic soda (NaOH) or Caustic potash (KOH).

Most of the soaps now-a-days are made commercially in large units called “kettles” similar to the one shown in figure . Animal fat or tallow is placed at the bottom of the large tank and alkali (NaOH) is added. The reaction which follows is called sapon keeps on floating at the top.

Glycerine and salt solution is drained off from the bottom of the tank from which glycerine is recovered as a by-product. </span><br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Laundry Soap </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The solid soap is mixed with a resin and more caustic soda solution is added and heated again. The molten mixture on cooling is moulded into cakes.

Sodium silicate, washing soda and sodium phosphate are also added to this soap to increase its weight and to improve its quality.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Toilet Soap </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Toilet soap is prepared from a good quality fat or edible oil. The moisture is removed from soap by passing it through hot rollers and then desired colour and perfume are added. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Kitchen Soap</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The Kitchen soap contains finely divided sand and washing soda. It is used forwashing utensils. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Shaving Cream </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Shaving cream or soap is produced by the saponification of good quality animal fat or edible oil with potassium hydroxide (caustic potash). It also contains some extra quantity of stearic acid to prevent soap from drying.</span><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;"> Detergents </span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Detergents are the salts of organic sulphonic acids. The general formula of a detergent is R-C6H4-S03Na+ (sodium alkyl benzene sulphonate).

All these detergents contains a polar group,

Examples

Sodium lauryl sulphate

Sodium dodecylbenzene sulphonate

Detergents when dissolved in water reduce the intermolecular attractive forces between water molecules. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Therefore, water containing some detergent enters into the clothes with greater ease and cleans them by removing dust and grease etc. from the surface. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Plastic </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Plastics are synthetic resins which are rapidly becoming important in everyday life.

These are classified into two types: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Thermoplastics </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermosetting plastics </span><br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermoplastics </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> These are the plastics which can easily be softened when heated and become hard when cooled with a little change in their properties. When heated they melt and form a fluid which can be moulded into any desired shape and then cooled to get the desired product. Common examples are polythene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride etc. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermosetting Plastics</span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> These are the plastics which undergo permanent change on heating. When heated they get highly cross linked to form hard, infusible products. Common examples are bakelite, melamine etc.</span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Methods of preparation and uses of plastics </span></h3>
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Polythene</span></h4>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is prepared by the polymerization of ethjfrie under high pressure and in the presence of traces of oxygen (0.01 %) </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> nCH2 = CH2 ► —{-H2C— CH2)t- </span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">It is used in the manufacture of pipes, laboratory apparatus, bottles, buckets, toys and electrical insulators. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> 
Polyvinyl chloride

(PVC) </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">It is prepared by the polymerization of vinyl chloride (CH2=CHCI) in an autoclave
PVC is used:

in the manufacture of rain coats and hand bags.

for artificial flooring.

as a good insulating material for wires and other electrical goods. </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Polystyrene </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is prepared by the polymerization of styrene in the presence of benzoyl neroxide. It is resistant to shock and chemical action.

It is used for:

making hot drink cups, toys, combs, etc.

making radio and television bodies.

Making tiles to be used in covering ceilings and floors.

Teflon (Polytetrafluoroethylene)

It is prepared by the polyemerization oftetrafluoroethylene.
Pressure

It is used for making combs, fountain pens, formica, tabletops and electrical goods.

</span></div>
</div>

How to prepare soaps

Preparation of soap Soaps are the metal (commonly sodium or potassium) salts of long chain fatty acids mainly palmitic (C15H31COOH), s...

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