Educational Wealth: achievements

Solved papers: B.A English paper B 2014

Abdullah 1 2014, achievements, BA English, Solved papers Sunday, October 06, 2019

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: left;">
                              BA Punjab University 2014</h2>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                          English paper B<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">                                                             
</span>First group</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                         Time :3:30 Hrs<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">                                                               
</span>Max Marks : 100</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>All Questions carry equal marks .Be strictly relevant</b><br />
<b>Q:1  <i>Write an essay,with outline,of 300-350 words one of the following topics.       20+5</i></b><br />
<b><i>Ans:                                     </i><span style="color: red;"> please click on these links for answer </span><i><br /></i></b><br />
<b>(1)  Impact of College life on character</b><br />
<b>(2)<a href="https://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2019/07/national-unity-essay.html">  National unity</a></b><br />
<b>(3)  <a href="https://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2019/07/childhood-joys-essay.html">Childhood joys</a></b><br />
<b>(4)  <a href="https://konfect.blogspot.com/2019/10/problems-of-pakistan-essay.html">Problems of Pakistan</a></b><br />
<b>(5) <a href="https://konfect.blogspot.com/2019/10/students-role-in-nation-building.html"> Students role in National building</a></b><br />
<br />
<i><b>Q.2. Read the 
following passage and answer the questions given at the end. Your own </b></i><br />
<i><b>       constructed answers will fetch you better marks.  </b></i>                      
                                                          25 <br />
The
 chief causes of large-scale violence are love of power, competition, 
hate and fear. Love of power will have no national outlet when all 
serious military force is concentrated in the International army. 
Competition will be effectively regulated by law and mitigated by 
governmental controls. Fear - in the acute form in which we know it - 
will disappear when war is no longer to be expected. There remains hate 
and malevolence. This has a deep hold on human nature.<br />
 The wide 
diffusion of malevolence is one of the most unfortunate things in human 
nature and it must be lessened if a world State is to be stable. It can 
be lessened and be very quickly. If peace becomes secure there will be a
 very rapid increase of material prosperity and this tends more than 
anything else to provide a mood of kindly feeling. Consider the immense 
diminution of cruelty in Britain during the Victorian Age; this was 
mainly due to rapidly increasing wealth in all classes. I think we may 
confidently expect a similar effect throughout the world owing to the 
increased wealth that will result from the elimination of war. A great 
deal, also, is to be hoped from achange
 in propaganda. Nationalist propaganda, in any violent form, will have 
to be illegal and children in school will not be taught to hate and 
despise foreign nations. <br />
Questions: <br />
<b><i><span style="color: #274e13;">(i)          What are the chief causes of large violence in the world.? </span></i></b><br />
Ans: The chief causes of large scale violence are love of power, competition, hate and fear. <br />
<span style="color: #274e13;"><i><b>(ii)        How can hate be lessened? </b></i></span><br />
Ans The wide diffusion of hate and malevolence is one of the most 
unfortunate things in human nature and it must be lessened if a world 
state is to be stable. <br />
<b><i><span style="color: #274e13;">(iii)       How can material prosperity be achieved? </span></i></b><br />
Ans If peace becomes secure there will be rapid increase of material prosperity. <br />
(iv)<i><b> How can nationalist propaganda be controlled? </b></i><br />
Ans:Nationalist propaganda in any violent form can be controlled if 
it is considered to-be illegal<br />
      and children in school not to be taught 
to hate and despise foreign nations. <br />
(<i><b>v)         Suggest suitable title for the passage. </b></i><br />
Ans:   Rapid Increase of Material Prosperity. <br />
<i><b>(vi)       Make a precis of the above passage. </b></i><br />
Ans:  Precis: <br />
The
 chief causes of large scale violence are love of power, competition, 
hate and fear. The wide diffusion of hate and malevolence is one of the 
most unfortunate things in human nature and it must be lessened if a 
world state is to be stable. If peace becomes secure there will be rapid
 increase of material prosperity. Nationalist propaganda in any violent 
form can be controlled if it is considered to be illegal and children in
 school not to be taught to hate and despise foreign nations.<br />
<br />
Q#3   <i><b>Write a job application to the General Manager of a Multi-National company for the post of accountant. </b></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ans:  click for ans  on this link</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                           <a href="https://konfect.blogspot.com/2019/10/write-job-application-to-general.html"> Write a job application to the General Manager of a Multi-National company</a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                                                                                                                 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Q.4. Correct any Five of the following sentences:</b></i><br />
(i)        He was failed in B.A. <br />
He failed in B.A.<br />
(ii)       I am sick with his company.<br />
I am sick of his company.<br />
(iii)      Bring me any water to drink.<br />
Bring me some water to drink.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(iv)      He congratulated him for his success.<br />
He congratulated him on his success.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(v)       Many a man was present there.<br />
Many a men were present there.<br />
(vi)      Either he or his friends helps me.<br />
Either he or his friends help me.<br />
(vii)     None of the two brothers is intelligent.<br />
None of the two brothers are intelligent.<br />
(viii)    I object to his go there.<br />
I object to his going there.<br />
(ix)      I shall not let him to go there.<br />
I shall not let him go there.<br />
(x)       Such careless students who do not work hard seldom pass.<br />
Such careless students as do not work hard, seldom pass.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i><b>Q.5. Use any Five of the following phrases in sentences: </b></i>                                                  10</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b>Phrases  </b>                                        <b>   Sentences </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
 (i) Creature comforts                     The hotel room was a bit small but all the creature comforts</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                                        were there.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(ii)     A chip of old block                    They are a chip of the old block.<br />
(iii)    Under a cloud                            Henry has been under a cloud as his officer is not pleased </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                                          with his work and conduct.<br />
(iv)    Between two fires                      He was much confused because he was between two fires.<br />
(v)     A bull in china shop                    After he got drunk, he was acting like a bull in a china shop.<br />
(vi)    Come by                                     How did you come by all this wealth?<br />
(vii)    Bring under                               The state of Hyderabad was brought under by police action.<br />
(viii)    Break out                                 The cholera broke out in the city.<br />
(ix)      Bear out                                      Your story bears out my truth.<br />
(x)       Turn up                                        He turned up when the match was over.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Q-6-<i><b> Translate the following into English:    </b></i>                                                                   15                                             <br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHyHYblVvMNM92BlocbVPBKjTqg3iSaG6wjQ0hflio-4GlIaYow7gFWfqocE0aej9WuoI7CnFsW1BfqbJzh1s1eHVh9kP3UvorqLmg8o1P9BjjB0G_l_LdlHEampzM0G76BvNxV60CH4s/s1600/IMG_2528.jpg"><img border="0" data-original-height="789" data-original-width="1600" height="197" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHyHYblVvMNM92BlocbVPBKjTqg3iSaG6wjQ0hflio-4GlIaYow7gFWfqocE0aej9WuoI7CnFsW1BfqbJzh1s1eHVh9kP3UvorqLmg8o1P9BjjB0G_l_LdlHEampzM0G76BvNxV60CH4s/s1600-rw/IMG_2528.jpg" width="400" /></a></div>
      <br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
                 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">

Every nation has its own festivals and it celebrates them in its own way. Among them some festivals are of religious nature, the nations celebrate them according to their religious devotion and respect Likewise, in the history of nations and countries, some days have special importance. They celebrate them with great zeal and fervour. The aim to celebrate these days is to keep touch with their past and refresh the memory of these events.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
                                                                         OR </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<i>Write a dialogue between the teacher and a graduate       student on the choice of career. </i>                      15</h4>
Ans: For ans click on this link<br />
                           <a href="https://konfect.blogspot.com/2019/10/write-dialogue-between-teacher-and.html">  Write a dialogue between the teacher and a graduate       student </a><br />
<br /></div><div class="MsoNormal">
<h2 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>For all past papers please click on this link</b></span></h2><h3 style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #990000;"><b>P<a href="https://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2019/10/solved-papers-old-papers-2014-to-2019.html">ast solved papers 2014  to 2021 BA/BSC.Punjab university</a><br /></b></span></h3>
<h2><b> </b></h2></div>
</div>

Solved papers: B.A English paper B 2014

BA Punjab University 2014 English paper B ...

Travel of Vasco –de-Gama

Abdullah 0 achievements, biography, Geography, Travellers, Travelling Tuesday, December 16, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Travel of  Vasco –de-Gama </span></h3>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyQQyFlDaIr0hFeO6hTTHX9QiaSkK-Uv7co2mQA8_KzYJBwSXmt21WtyeODigHDJnm7t8veAuL-XahwqbToCETGtvxXwG1p4FsUE0iyhM-KJLl2pTG2FX6ggsneERBMXeeMV4WxMkWOb0/s1600/vasco.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyQQyFlDaIr0hFeO6hTTHX9QiaSkK-Uv7co2mQA8_KzYJBwSXmt21WtyeODigHDJnm7t8veAuL-XahwqbToCETGtvxXwG1p4FsUE0iyhM-KJLl2pTG2FX6ggsneERBMXeeMV4WxMkWOb0/s1600-rw/vasco.png" width="267" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Vasco-de-gama</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Vasco-
 de -Gama was born on </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">1460.Vasco da Gama was born 1460 or 1469 in Sines, on the southwest coast of Portuga.Vasco da Gama's father was served as a knight of the household of  Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu and went on to rise in the ranks of the military Order of Santiago. His father was appointed civil governor of Sines in the 1460s  until 1478.He studied at the inland town of Évora, where he  learned mathematics and navigation .IHe studied under the <b><i>astronomer </i></b>Abraham Zacuto.

Around 1480, da Gama followed his father and joined the Order of Santiago. The master of Santiago was Prince John.

In 1492, John II dispatched da Gama on a mission to the port of Setúbal.</span>But he and by going round the African 
Continent ultimately reached India in 1498 A.D. He
 landed at the Indian port of Calicut. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He was the first European to reach India by sea.He was  linking Europe and Asia for the first time by ocean .This discovery was significant and opened the way for an age of global imperialism .</span></div>

Travel of Vasco –de-Gama

Travel of Vasco –de-Gama Vasco-de-gama Vasco- de -Gama was born on 1460.Vasco da Gama was born 1460 or 1469 ...

Travel of Ibne Batuta

Abdullah 0 achievements, biography, Geography, Travellers, Travelling Tuesday, December 16, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Travel of Ibne Batuta </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5LIzHi9a39wnwn4QpQKKpNq7krFJNW1yrRBNZBIIiAahvVU1KIqv-V2mTK4qiiXFt_oBrb69xssQXnCrm9w29az0ewnZ7yI8f1S4TmMzEIGgcu1I4nRcJiRTZLHEJ4cIHb3AaHuzzdfs/s1600/batuta.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5LIzHi9a39wnwn4QpQKKpNq7krFJNW1yrRBNZBIIiAahvVU1KIqv-V2mTK4qiiXFt_oBrb69xssQXnCrm9w29az0ewnZ7yI8f1S4TmMzEIGgcu1I4nRcJiRTZLHEJ4cIHb3AaHuzzdfs/s1600-rw/batuta.png" width="288" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ibn-e-Batuta</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span></h3>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The
 great Muslim traveller of the middle ages Ibne Batuta was born in 1304 
A. D. at Tangier.

From the early childhood he was very fond of studying geography.

Travelling in those days was very difficult and of dangers. There was no
 guides or maps and people travelled on horse-back. Inspite of all 
these, difficulties, ibne-Batuta travelled through almost all the Muslim
 countries.

Ibne Batuta was twenty one years old when in 1325 A.D. he got a chance 
to accompany a caravan from Tunis to Egypt. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Ibne
 Batuta wanted to go for Haj but made a detour. He went to 
Baitul-Muqaddas and from there he went to Syria and then to Makkah. He 
stayed there for some years.

He went for visit of holy places to Iran and Iraq and made the next trip
 to Central Asia.After that trip, Ibne Batuta set his face towards 
India. Passing through Samarqand, Bukhara and Kabul, he reached Delhi 
via Sukkur and Multan. Delhi at that time was being ruled by Muhammad 
Tughlaq. The Sultan was greatly impressed by his intelligence and 
knowledge and gave him the office of a Qazi (judge). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The
 Sultan then nominated Ibne Batuta as his Ambassador to China. On his 
way, he made halts at Maldives and Sri Lanka and gave very fine accounts
 of

those places. After going through many dangers, he reached China by the 
sea route. He is full of praise for the artistic taste of the Chinese, 
their nice houses and efficient. police system. He was particularly 
impressed by their methods of agriculture. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Ibne
 Batuta lived in China for five years and then decided to return. From 
China, he came to Java and Calicut and again entered India from the 
southern side. </span></div>

Travel of Ibne Batuta

Travel of Ibne Batuta Ibn-e-Batuta The great Muslim traveller of the middle ages Ibne Batuta was born in 13...

Travel of Marco Polo's

Abdullah 0 achievements, biography, Geography, Travellers, Travelling Tuesday, December 16, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Adventures of Marco Polo</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Marco Polo was born in Italy at the city of Venice in the middle of 13th century.</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Marco Polo was born on September 15, 1254 and died on  January 9, 1324.He was  a Venetian 
merchant traveller.His travels are recorded in "The
 Travels of Marco Polo." It is a book that introduced Europeans to 
Central Asia and China. </span>

Marco. Polo’s adventure began when he accompanied his father to China.' in one of the latter’-s trade trips to that country.</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHSkSH5kuwGHOhCOFgB716aA9KxyNZJJZ2uLqcASEQ0ZMWurYQF9YZTuA74nCTjHJ593zUxj2wjDBO6wClRbqZn1yDyz13tuy6AghMX28nUvuH0sV3-0-EwnaaoEIpC7BkoaWY87pwJt4/s1600/marco.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHSkSH5kuwGHOhCOFgB716aA9KxyNZJJZ2uLqcASEQ0ZMWurYQF9YZTuA74nCTjHJ593zUxj2wjDBO6wClRbqZn1yDyz13tuy6AghMX28nUvuH0sV3-0-EwnaaoEIpC7BkoaWY87pwJt4/s1600-rw/marco.png" width="301" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Marco-Polo</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;">
</span>
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Marco
 Polo was only seventeen years old then.

He'stayed in China for seventeen long years.-On his return, he narrated 
fascinating accounts of the land and people of China.

Once Marco Polo was made a prisoner of war. In the prison he got the 
account of his travel and stay in China recorded by fellow prisoners. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Marco Polo talks in this account of the great mineral wealth of the East
 and the amount of jold that is used on the palaces and buildings. Marco
 Polo had also identified an ocean beyond China. </span>. The <br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Marco Polo was not the first European to reach China , but he was the first to leave a detailed chronicle of 
his experience. This book inspired Columbus and many 
other travellers. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He 
died in 1324 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Venice.</span><br />
<br /></div>

Travel of Marco Polo's

Adventures of Marco Polo Marco Polo was born in Italy at the city of Venice in the middle of 13th century. Marco Polo was born on Septem...

Louis Pasteur

Abdullah 0 achievements, greatest scientists Tuesday, March 25, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<br />
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Achievements of louis pasture</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">Louis Pasteur was born In France in 1822. He graduated in
science and arts from a college in Besancon and was given a post on the teaching staff. </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdW73fkDgvgz2mMhPc9wIRF8D5XxgFNYo-EWNOozpK34qk-vUjW3ocWAlvAohQXHOGJGxqM_a1tEM9o4lZpmpNX4ZjnbYpy4ztuNKrsZOlBPZlUqCuPQQfSOMlFHBF5Jxb8QMrW_uCA_c/s1600/Pasture.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdW73fkDgvgz2mMhPc9wIRF8D5XxgFNYo-EWNOozpK34qk-vUjW3ocWAlvAohQXHOGJGxqM_a1tEM9o4lZpmpNX4ZjnbYpy4ztuNKrsZOlBPZlUqCuPQQfSOMlFHBF5Jxb8QMrW_uCA_c/s1600-rw/Pasture.png" width="341" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Louis Pasture</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">In 1848, at the age of twenty six he became Deputy Professor of chemistry in the University of Strasburg. He was married in 1950. The <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2013/12/a-picnica-marriage-procession-essays.html" target="_blank"><b>marriage</b></a> proved extremely happy. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">His wife played an important role in his life and work.
In 1860, he proved that if a substance was heated so & kill all life, and protected from the germs from outside, it would not
give birth to any form of life.The French Academy was satisfied and awarded5 him the prize offered for the solution7of the problem. In the course of his experiments, he found that certain kinds of germs were very difficult to destroy by heat. The bacteria in milk could be destroyed only by heating it at 10°C above the boiling point.
In 1870 he became interested in brewing . It was the year when Germany and France started a war. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Pasteur was a great patriotic. He loved his country. As soon as the war started, he returned the degree of Doctor of Medicine bestowed upon him by the university of Bonn. He wished to join the army but was declared unfit on medical grounds.
The reason for his interest In brewing was patriotic in nature.
He wished to enable France to make beer as good as that brewed by Germany. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He published his research on brewing in 1076. He discovered that fermentation13 was due to bacteria. Later, Lister proved that inflammation14, too, was a type Of fermentation and was caused by bacteria getting into the wounds.
In 1865, Pasteur had done some work on the diseases of  silk worms. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Now after completing his work on brewing he turned his attenlion to diseases of animals and men. He visited hospitals, collected infectious matter from patients, examined it under 
microscope and identified germs of various diseases.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> His most important achievement was the discovery of making vaccines. The first disease to which Pasteur applied his vaccine was Rabies, a dreadfuldisease produced by the bite of a mad dog. His first patient, a boy, was completely cured.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> In two months Pasteur inoculated 350 men bitten by mad dogs and only one of them died. -Pasteur’s followers carried on his work. More and more germs wore identified. Medicines and vaccines were prepared to . and prevent diseases caused by these germs.
Fasteur died in 1895 at the age of seventy-three. He was buried in the Pasteur Institute built by his admirers in Paris.

</span></div>

Louis Pasteur

Achievements of louis pasture Louis Pasteur was born In France in 1822. He graduated in science and arts from a college in Besancon an...

Mustafa kamal Pasha

Abdullah 1 achievements Tuesday, March 25, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Achievements of Mustafa Kamal</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mustafa Kamal was a great patriot. He was against the
foreign occupation of his beloved land. He did not like the Turkish King co-operating with the Allies.</span><br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnpdI31ZW5GzazIN2ilyOZA7Udg-ipbGpXEkIBNBzXsGb42IQHt9WJBgk-d5TzFqXx_quFNPk6stBVJerdyQagFF9w0-NgadMj4VLJk2P0BHaSodfTS4-2PUp0mZe447lbsuVJL3BtkQ4/s1600/Mustafa+kamal.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnpdI31ZW5GzazIN2ilyOZA7Udg-ipbGpXEkIBNBzXsGb42IQHt9WJBgk-d5TzFqXx_quFNPk6stBVJerdyQagFF9w0-NgadMj4VLJk2P0BHaSodfTS4-2PUp0mZe447lbsuVJL3BtkQ4/s1600-rw/Mustafa+kamal.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mustafa kamal</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mustafa Kamal </span>Travel to Anatolia </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mustafa Kamal got a golden opportunity to arouse the Turkish people when he was sent to Anatolia by the King to put down the rebellion against him.
On reaching Anatolia, Mustafa Kamal had a secret meeting with the Commander of the Ottoman Army there. Both the patriots chalked out a plan to defeat the Greek invaders and to free their country.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> Mustafa Kamal raised national army</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mustafa travelled from village to village and raised a National Army of Patriots. He also set up a National Government at Ankara which was the real representative of free Turkey. He had lighted the -flame of patriotism in the hearts of Turkish men and women. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Mustafa Kamal Invited king to fight </span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">As soon as the King heard of the activities of Mustafa Kamal, he ordered him to return to Istanbul. But Mustafa, in his reply, invited the King to come over to Anatolia and himself lead the war against the Greeks.
All the leading patriots had escaped to Anatolia and joined Mustafa Kamal. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Fight between Turks and Greeks </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There was a fierce fight between the Greeks and the Turks for fourteen days in which the Turks came out victorious. They reconquered Izmir.
The king went Into exile in a British ambulance. It was the end of an age.
On the 29th October, 1923, The Turkish Republic with Mustafa Kamal as the President and General Ismat Inonu as the Prime Minister was founded. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mustafa Kamal introduced basic reforms </span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mustafa Kamal introduced basic reforms. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1-Turkish language was simplified.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2- It was declared that everybody will have to get education. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3-Roman script was adopted. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4-The women were asked to take part in nation building. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5-The banking system was reorganized.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6- Factories and Industries were installed . </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7-The Turks travelled in a few years the road .

</span></div>

Mustafa kamal Pasha

Achievements of Mustafa Kamal Mustafa Kamal was a great patriot. He was against the foreign occupation of his beloved land. He did not l...

Sir Alexander flamming

Abdullah 0 achievements, greatest scientists Tuesday, March 25, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></h3>
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
 
<span style="font-size: large;">Achievements of Alexander flamming</span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Sir Alexander Fleming</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Alexander Fleming was born in Scotland in 1881. At the
age of fourteen he joined a polytechnic institute in London. He left it after two years. For four years he worked as a clerk in a shipping firm of London. When he was twenty-, he got admission to St. Mary’s medical school.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: left;">
</div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEVsrePeFV2_NBdt6jdNvaoUcY2SaYQLJdni85a4WntSBEk1v6i5wemMgPo8ZHMZc-Fk-zfG27lZpP4CMh1F4mz4tmBN7X66S1tn014KBLMyKAklNUYLci325PIsiwLN4x88azT6hP5QY/s1600/flemming.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEVsrePeFV2_NBdt6jdNvaoUcY2SaYQLJdni85a4WntSBEk1v6i5wemMgPo8ZHMZc-Fk-zfG27lZpP4CMh1F4mz4tmBN7X66S1tn014KBLMyKAklNUYLci325PIsiwLN4x88azT6hP5QY/s1600-rw/flemming.png" width="265" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Flemming</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> He passed his final examination in 1906. For eight years lie worked in Wright’s Laboratory.
In 1914, he joined the R.A M.C. He had to face the problem of the treatment of infected wounds. The problem was to kill the germs without damaging the white blood, cells that fight against germs.
At thirty-seven Fleming went back to St. Mary’s- and continued research. In 1922, he discovered an antiseptic It was not a '' chemical like carbolic acid but a natural antiseptic manufactured by the body. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Discovery of  lysozyme </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">He made the discovery by an accident by .the elimination of his own nasal secretions. He discovered a substance that destroyed microbes  on a culture plate. He called it Lysozyme. It was in fact, the first antiseptic that was harmless to the cells of the body Unfortunately it did not prove useful in the treatment of diseases. ' * ,
In 1928, Fleming was appointed Professor of Bacteriology in the University of London.The same year he discovered penicillin. The discovery was made again by accident. A mould spore entered Fleming's laboratory and fell on a culture plate It destroyed the growth of germs on the plate. Fleming worked hard and he was able to produce the anti-bacterial substance free of the mould.
Experiments proved the effectiveness of penicillin against germs. It did not harm the white blood cells. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">It was an ideal antiseptic but it could be used to fight germs only when it was in concentrated form. Fleming was not a chemist and could not concentrate it. He published his findings.
Years later, Professor Florey and Dr. Chain succeeded, after a long hard strggle, In producing penicillin in required form. The first patient was treated with penicillin in 1941. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Since then millions and millions of people have been treated with it.
Fleming was knighted in 1944 and awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945. He became famous. He. had to travel widely, attend functions, make speeches anchteceive thanks. But Fleming was very modest. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He said that nature made penicillin, he just found it.
Fleming, like Pasteur, opened up a whole new world of science. He died in 1956 at the age of seventy-three. His work will never die.  .

</span></div>

Sir Alexander flamming

Achievements of Alexander flamming Sir Alexander Fleming Alexander Fleming was born in Scotland in 1881. At the age of fourteen he...

Darwinism

Abdullah 0 achievements, biology, greatest scientists Friday, January 10, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: x-large;">Achievements of Darwin</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Charles Darwin while on voyage abroad "The HMS Beagle (ship)" made observation about the great variety of birds and reptiles on Galapagos Island and their relationship to similar groups on the Ecuadorian mainland.</span><br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtIdkvutpzTOck89ISkNx9un-NTmeVQC8-6UXq2sSuTsXz4e15VuETaSOd7W02S7KlhIJaI-no4ruUcmgvpKn1oMDEDpx7-Vg0e0-xf1pRdJ9Gp8cw7DdxXENDVIBt-kmmFy53GNq4gyE/s1600/darwin.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="400" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgtIdkvutpzTOck89ISkNx9un-NTmeVQC8-6UXq2sSuTsXz4e15VuETaSOd7W02S7KlhIJaI-no4ruUcmgvpKn1oMDEDpx7-Vg0e0-xf1pRdJ9Gp8cw7DdxXENDVIBt-kmmFy53GNq4gyE/s1600-rw/darwin.bmp" width="282" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Charles Darwin</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;">Charles Darwin was greatly inspired by the work of his geologist friend Charles Lyell whose major thesis was that geological forces produce a constant changing environment.

Darwin also came across by a clergyman and an economist Thomas Malthus, who maintained that human population tend to increase at a much greater than does the food supply necessary to sustain the population. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Darwin studied an essay outlining a similar theory of evolution by another naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who observed diversity in plants and animals and their peculiar distribution in South America, Malaya and Indian archi-pel-ago.

He also knew about the practices of plants and animal breeders producing in a new generation, the desired traits in domestic animals and plants by selective breeding.

All the above knowledge helped Charles Darwin, to propose a theory of evolution by natural selection, he proposed his theory at a scientific meeting of Linnean Society in London in 1858 and published his famous book, named "The origin of species by means of natural selection" in 1859.
The salient features of Darwin's theory of evolution : </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Over production </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">All organisms tend to reproduce in geometrical progression (1,2,4,8, ,2n).It means organisms multiply very rapidly. If all the organisms produced remain alive would result in Million of organisms of a single species on <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/our-lovely-planetearth-creation-origin.html" target="_blank"><b>earth</b></a> in a matter of a century even in case of slow breeders, such as elephants. One bacteria can produce two million ton bacteria within 24 hours.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Heritable Variations</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Darwin noticed that all the individual of a species are not alike at the time of birth. He realized that some of the variations were useful for the individuals as they carry them comfortably to live in that environment. These individuals could adapt to their environment more than the individuals which did not possess these useful variations.
Competition for Survival:

The available resources of the environment such as food, water, shelter, etc. are limited. Food can increase in arithmetic fashion (1,2,4,6,8,10,......). It means food can be increased slowly. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">We have seen that population of organisms increases in geometric progression (2n). Therefore the ratio of organisms to food reach unmanageable proportion and leads to a struggle for survival. The individuals of a species compete with each other and with the individuals of other species to get their food. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Natural Selection:</span></b></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> In the competition for survival and struggle for existence the individuals that are better adapted to the environment are successful and continue to produce 'offspring with their adaptive characteristics. The characteristics which provide adaptiveness or fitness come to accumulate in the population than those characteristics which decrease fitness.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The greater reproductive success of the better adapted from constitute the natural selection. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Explanation of Darwinism with Example</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> According to Darwin the ancestors of modern giraffe's had various lengths of necks, some had long and some had short necks. The long necked giraffes were able to eat the leaves of the trees as well as grass. </span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsdwGtkc0o_j4-abh1zZKDsXJRazc_bXWwjtbIFLhEkDMO8jwo-LM_uIWMDb4jwDaUr3PNta-nD17xHNCATJKJ47a_Ymx4iqZ0oZJyoBFJdxVj1T8wC-B9f2cIUhhlN0-0yx-SDHLxagY/s1600/jirrrrr.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="230" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhsdwGtkc0o_j4-abh1zZKDsXJRazc_bXWwjtbIFLhEkDMO8jwo-LM_uIWMDb4jwDaUr3PNta-nD17xHNCATJKJ47a_Ymx4iqZ0oZJyoBFJdxVj1T8wC-B9f2cIUhhlN0-0yx-SDHLxagY/s1600-rw/jirrrrr.bmp" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ancestor's of modern giraffe</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">When the grass became short, the long necked giraffe could obtain more food from the top of trees than short-necked giraffe and were more likely to survive and reproduce. This favourable variation of long neck was inherited by offspring generation after generation. The present long necked giraffe is the result of this type of evolution.
Modification

The theory of evolution proposed by Darwin has been modified in the light of modern evidence from genetics, molecular biology, paleontology, ecology and ethology (the study of behavior) and is known as neo Darwinism or synthetic theory of evolution.

</span></div>

Darwinism

Achievements of Darwin Charles Darwin while on voyage abroad "The HMS Beagle (ship)" made observation about the great variety ...

Lamark theory of evolution

Abdullah 0 achievements, biology, greatest scientists Friday, January 10, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Achievements of Lamark </span></h2>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Lamarkisim
Jean Baptiste de </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Lamarck

Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was born in France on 1744.

He presented the idea of evolution in 1809 in his book "philosophie zoologiqe. "</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrIiojKFZSRyCRJZy_HCTSb4l3ycZ4ioxff3CHm_zMM8P-cN5ltDOi-k_View_hGU4r3NdfHba2-ujoFrIg35I2QiG-1MnoZFRi0dNyom95FuVO-uXt5Ycxn23og-6o3Ki5dGTzeFfP4w/s1600/lamark.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrIiojKFZSRyCRJZy_HCTSb4l3ycZ4ioxff3CHm_zMM8P-cN5ltDOi-k_View_hGU4r3NdfHba2-ujoFrIg35I2QiG-1MnoZFRi0dNyom95FuVO-uXt5Ycxn23og-6o3Ki5dGTzeFfP4w/s1600-rw/lamark.bmp" width="263" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lamarck Jean Baptiste de</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">  </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">His ideas about evolution were called as Lamarckism. </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Important Points of Lamarckism </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There were two important points of his theory. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Use and Disuse of Organs: </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">According to Lamarckism, in organisms certain changes are developed by use and disuse of body parts due to biological needs arising out of environmental changes. The organs greatly used develop in its size and organs disused tend to become weaker and can eventually disappear. This statement of Lamarck, that use or disuse can produce changes in .organs seems correct, e.g. the development of muscles in athletes and development of calf muscles in ladies who wear high heals. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Inheritance of Acquired Characters: </span></h4>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Variations in phenotype due to use and disuse of organs are called acquired characters because these characters are developed during the life-time of an individual.

Lamarck believed that these characters are heritable and are passed on to the offspring from their parents during reproduction. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Giraffe's neck </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Lamarckism can be illustrated by an example of giraffe's long neck. Lamarck assumed that long necked giraffes evolved from short necked ancestors.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> He explained the Lamarckism in giraffes as follows: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The short necked giraffe could graze on grasses.

When the grass became scanty the giraffes tried to

stretch their necks to reach the top of the trees to feed on leaves.

As a result of these efforts the giraffe's necks became longer.The same trend continued and the neck went on becoming longer and longer.

The giraffes with long necks were able to survive in such an environment.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Lamarck believed that acquired characters of long neck in giraffes were heritable and were passed on the

next generation. </span><br />
<h4 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Disuse of Organs:</span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Lamarckism can also be described with the help of an example of snakes. Ancestors of modern snakes had four legs with which they used to move on land.

In order to escape from enemies the snakes started hiding in holes and Creeping in narrow cracks in rocks.

In this new mode of life, the legs were not used but muscles of their body were-used more for creeping.

As a result of disuse of organ, legs were completely disappeared from the body and the snakes became elongated cylindrical in shape. This is how present day snakes have evolved. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Objection of August Weisemann on Lamarckism:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> To prove the hypothesis of Lamarck August Weisemann in 1870, cut off tails of mice over many successive generations. In each generation the mice were born with the normal tails. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">According to Lamarckism, the acquired characters would be inherited. But this was not the case. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Weisemann postulated that "somatic acquired characteristics resulting in phenotypic changes did not directly ’affect the germ cells (gametes) by which characteristics are passed on to other species." The variants that are better adapted to the environment are successful and continue to produce offspring with their adaptive characteristics.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Over time the characteristics which provide adaptiveness or fitness come to accumulate in the population than those characteristics which decrease fitness.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The greater adaptive success of the better adapted form constitute the natural selection. He means to say that better adaptive individuals are favoured by nature, to survive and reproduce as compared to individuals which are not fit for that environment.

</span></div>

Lamark theory of evolution

Achievements of Lamark Lamarkisim Jean Baptiste de Lamarck Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was born in France on 1744. He presented the ide...

Mendle and pea

Abdullah 0 achievements, biology, greatest scientists Wednesday, January 08, 2014

<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">Father of Genetics</span></h2>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Gregor Johann Mendle </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Gregor Johann Mendle was born in 1822. He was a priest by profession, but an amateur scientist by genius.</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjda9-CiQg2ev_y8pOxdu0DrgF1aV0wq9-HFEEAcPxTtkGL19NfiXiAoycoNGxUUwvKwEGu4RZ6MayHyVnITAAF8Ix-k1IQChJpHrVBdTx6mk1H_0AnDgnZyhe_gn3cGey0GHzyXJLFcRU/s1600/mendle.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjda9-CiQg2ev_y8pOxdu0DrgF1aV0wq9-HFEEAcPxTtkGL19NfiXiAoycoNGxUUwvKwEGu4RZ6MayHyVnITAAF8Ix-k1IQChJpHrVBdTx6mk1H_0AnDgnZyhe_gn3cGey0GHzyXJLFcRU/s1600-rw/mendle.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;">Gregor Johann Mendle </span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Due to his unrewarding services to the genetics, he is called as "father of genetics".

Mendel started his work on garden pea Pisum sativum in 1854, in his monastery garden. He performed a series of experiments and complied his data numerically. </span><br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Why mendle choosed pea for his experiments</span></h3>
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Short growing season </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Pea produces a large number of fertile seeds within a relatively short growing season. As the time gap between generations is short, many generations can be raised easily within a short time. </span><br />
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Pea is hermaphrodite </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Pea is a hermaphrodite plant as it has both male and female organs on the same flower. Owing to hermaphrodite, it normally self fertilizes because its stamens and carpels are completely enclosed by two petals, which fuse together to form a keel around them.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZnI77sn0HKGCcUN_BAM5IY1l2MpEGpS6heGqFRAXrIARAq2kpqXhlbV9tW3IN0Sv7bJD_Qj8DSCWVB9qbD1FRgrPkDGmd_7wblVL9Ytr6mhQGM3Dgh1BZ_fAW57pwvSv6FJd_gX9P4DI/s1600/pea.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgZnI77sn0HKGCcUN_BAM5IY1l2MpEGpS6heGqFRAXrIARAq2kpqXhlbV9tW3IN0Sv7bJD_Qj8DSCWVB9qbD1FRgrPkDGmd_7wblVL9Ytr6mhQGM3Dgh1BZ_fAW57pwvSv6FJd_gX9P4DI/s1600-rw/pea.png" width="316" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">pea (flower)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> There is very remote chance for foreign pollens to enter into keel and thus, its pollination can be controlled.

The hermaphrodite flower can be changed into female parent by removing its anthers before the maturation of pollens. Now it can be cross-fertilized by transferring pollens from anthers of another pea plant (male parent) with a paint brush. </span><br />
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Contrasting pairs </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Cross' fertilization of pea Pea has many sharply distinct traits. Each trait has two clear cut alternative forms or varieties. Mendel called these varieties 'antagonistic pairs' or contrasting pairs. He settled on seven such pairs for his study. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihj0gm53oaDatD_DAvvGhUbxpbRpN_kT8Kq8eo_MlqZvZyk7ZjZ5CaxLsW-SjE3xMSSgJI_IvoyQDMlY6kKmJfQl9iPCgS_VoW2dE3x6cZcZvn7BtVy5hUMhPG1spMOronNwDfxJbbhNo/s1600/pooo.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="362" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEihj0gm53oaDatD_DAvvGhUbxpbRpN_kT8Kq8eo_MlqZvZyk7ZjZ5CaxLsW-SjE3xMSSgJI_IvoyQDMlY6kKmJfQl9iPCgS_VoW2dE3x6cZcZvn7BtVy5hUMhPG1spMOronNwDfxJbbhNo/s1600-rw/pooo.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">seven contrasting characters</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mendle's experiment#1</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> He first isolated and perpetuated lines of pea that bred true.He self fertilizes with such pure breeding lines and produced offsprings like the parents. .

After establishing 14 true breeding lines or varieties of seven characters, he did hybridization or cross fertilization.

He worked with patience. First he did hybridization for just one character at time. He cross-fertilized plants differing in one contrasting pair only. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The offspring of such a cross are called monohybrids.

Then he made monohybrid cross between monohybrids by self fertilization. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-OFEZUDS-TZl9ze_-j3MWdOL8Q9P-qyuPHhN-45hKO06VXaFz-BoUnbxpftYDDN0n6Oq_Qo9RfgL-F91UhabchYummPQEaVV4z8VjLKH1LXUiiwr0xyyum95PPpjN6yKONa0Vccku89c/s1600/peeee.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="334" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-OFEZUDS-TZl9ze_-j3MWdOL8Q9P-qyuPHhN-45hKO06VXaFz-BoUnbxpftYDDN0n6Oq_Qo9RfgL-F91UhabchYummPQEaVV4z8VjLKH1LXUiiwr0xyyum95PPpjN6yKONa0Vccku89c/s1600-rw/peeee.bmp" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Transmission of Menle's factors</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He worked with large number of plants to produce fairly large number of offspring. He counted the progeny and did statistical analysis, which gave him clear ratios. He compiled his results and then formulated law of segregation.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Then he studied the inheritance of two traits at a time and made dihybrids.Then he crossed dihybrids by self fertilization.He counted the progeny of dihybrids and did analysis of his results. He got clear-cut ratio even now and thus,formulated the law of independent assortment. </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Seven Contrasting Pairs of Traits: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mendel chosed seven contrasting pairs of traits of pea plant for his work. Each trait had two sharply distinct varieties. These seven contrasting pairs are given below:

Seed shape may be round or wrinkled.

Inflated or pinched pod Axial or terminal flower

Tall or short stem .

Seed colour may be yellow or green.

Flower height may be tall or short.

Flower colour may be white or purple.

Pod colour may be green or yellow. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Mendel made a cross fertilization between a true breeding 'tall' male plant and a true breeding 'short' female plant. He called this first parental generation (Pi).By crossing the above plants he obtained a generation and called it first filial generation (F1). Filial means progeny. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">All the offspring of F1 were tall like one of the parents.

Parents could not appear. Tall dominated short completely because no offspring was intermediate in size. There was no mixing or blending.</span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Dominent trait</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> "The trait which appeared  in F1 generation is called dominent trait" </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Recessive trait </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> "The trait which was hidden  in F1 generation is called recessive trait" </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Reciprocal Cross: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">"The cross which is reciprocal to the normal cross in which we change the sex of a trait is called a reciprocal cross."

In old days people believed in Aristotle's misconception that only the male parent contributed most to an offspring's inherited characters. The female parent just served to nourish. In order to test it, Mendel made a reciprocal cross by reserving sexes of Pi. The result was again the same. Again all Fi monohybrids were tall.</span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Monohybrid Cross: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> "A cross between two monohybrids organisms is called as a monohybrid cross."

Mendel's Monohybrid Cross: Mendel self-fertilized Fi tall plants to raise F2 generation.

A clear cut ratio of 3 : 1 was found.

It happened for all the seven contrasting pairs of

traits.

From above cross, Mendel concluded that both parents have equal contribution to the genetic makeup of the offspring. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Capability of expression in F1 is a trait's own characteristic.

The reappearance of short in F2 indicated that this phenotype though not expressed in F1 did exist in some masked form. The dominant trait might have temporarily masked its expression, but it could not change or modify its determining nature.F1 tall was actually very different from Pi tall because self-fertilization of Pi tall produced 100% tall offspring but self fertilization of Fx tall gave 75% tall and 25% short offspring. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Fi tall was not true breeding rather it was monohybrid.

Mendel got the same results and similar 3 : 1 ratio in offspring of monohybrid crosses for all, the seven contrasting pairs of traits.

Mendel also raised F3 generation by self-fertilization

of F2.

F1 x F2

He found all of F2 tall produced only tall, while all of F2 tall produced both tall and short in 3 : 1 ratio. But F2 short produced only short. </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mendel's Interpretation:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mendel interpreted his results intelligently. He imagined that contrasting form of a trait, tall or short was determined by heredity factors. Each individual had a pair of these factors. One factor of this pair had come in him from his male parent while the other from his female parent. Both of these factors together controlled expression of trait in him. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Mendel assigned symbols to these factors. He designated dominated factor with capital latter and recessive with small latter, e.g. 'T' for tall and Y for short
Mendel's factors

For Mendel his factors were discrete physical units of inheritance. Johanson coined the term 'gene' and people started calling them genes. Today for us these factors are parts of DNA, the base sequences that carry the biological information to determine a trait. Mendel's factors are alleles of genes. </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Test Cross</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> "Test cross is a mating in which an individual showing a dominant phenotype is crossed with an individual showing its recessive phenotype." </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Importance of a Test Cross </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> This is very important to note that recessive parent is always homozygous (tt). Mendel used this cross to find out genotype of an individual who had dominant phenotype. This test also determines whether the dominant parent is homozygous or heterozygous.

Examples:

Case I: .</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> If an individual is homozygous tall (TT), it will form all gametes with a 'T' allele. Short is always homozygous recessive. It will form all gametes with a 't' allele. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Result: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1/2 Tt = Tall, 1/2 tt = short offspring. The phenotypically dominant heterozygous. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Misfortunately Mendel's work lay neglected for 34 years. In 1900, 16 years after his death, his work was rediscovered and acknowledged by the foundation of classical genetics.

Mendel was a genius man. He worked differently from other workers of his period. He wisely chose garden pea plant called Pisum sativum for his experiments, because he knew its advantages which are given below.</span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Law of segregation</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">:

"<i>The two coexisting alleles of an individual for each trait segregate (separate) during gametes formation so that each gamete gets only one of the two allele</i>s. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Alleles again unite at random fertilization of gametes."

To explain law of segregation, Mendel made a cross between true breeding tall (TT) and dwarf (tt) pea plants and got Fi generation. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Case I</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> All the plants in Fi were tall but heterozygous (Tt). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">All tall offspring.

The phenotypically dominant individual is homozygous.

Tt </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Case II: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> If the tall individual is heterozygous (Tt), it will form half the gametes with a T and half with a't' allele. Short will form only't' type of gametes. Fertilization will result into 50% tall and 50% short offspring. </span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXJ4FeqQg9JwAtet2nkphnTMhlcST0rXyHDDN6jcS1fuY6K526P-SQMe83V86wb0HdBTlE5eGaRq4T6AifM8Z0hzuHB2GFO_Ck1DaKmMMjVRTFkdlDuOW4ZvEP4eFpNkatFGeDPjoy8UU/s1600/segregation.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="301" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXJ4FeqQg9JwAtet2nkphnTMhlcST0rXyHDDN6jcS1fuY6K526P-SQMe83V86wb0HdBTlE5eGaRq4T6AifM8Z0hzuHB2GFO_Ck1DaKmMMjVRTFkdlDuOW4ZvEP4eFpNkatFGeDPjoy8UU/s1600-rw/segregation.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Test cross (case 1)</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiN11YphJR38eGpTv1u9ERfNxra5hJqDFfiOVxhhftKloDNwOQG5Q8l0A7q2h31Q19FnJiY9v29xUILQ9_Ve9kkaixFh-GoJoZllCQ4kx6BqHve_huOZWdfbhhWP6q5mlXy1Hx9V3dhuo/s1600/segre+2.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiN11YphJR38eGpTv1u9ERfNxra5hJqDFfiOVxhhftKloDNwOQG5Q8l0A7q2h31Q19FnJiY9v29xUILQ9_Ve9kkaixFh-GoJoZllCQ4kx6BqHve_huOZWdfbhhWP6q5mlXy1Hx9V3dhuo/s1600-rw/segre+2.bmp" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Test cross (case 11)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">This indicated that tall character is dominant to dwarf.

Experiment 2: self crossed plants of Fi generation and got 1 : 2 : 1 genotype and 3 : 1 phenotype in F2 generation, which meant the two alleles (T and t) stayed

together in Fi generation but at the time of gamete formation in Fx, these alleles untie randomly as genotype

All the plants were round yellow seeded due to dominance. As Fi contains two trail together it was called dihybrid.</span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Law of Independent Assortment: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mendel allowed to self fertilize the Fi generation.

He got F2 generation with two new recombinations in addition to the parent types. The new recombinations were phenotypically different from parent i.e. round green and wrinkled yellow. He got (9:3:3:1 ratio among F2.

Appearance of recombination phenotypes in F2 indicated that some "shuffling" of allele had occurred. Mendel inferred the mechanism of thi shuffling as independent assortment of alleles inti gametes.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Alleles for seed colour and seed shape were no fixed or tied in parental combinations i.e. 'R' with 'Y' ant V' with Y; rather they were free to assort independently 'R' could go with 'Y' or y in any gamete with equa probability.

Similarly 'r' could go with 'Y' or y in any gamete with equal change. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Four kinds of gametes were producec in equal number with a perfect ratio 1 : 1 : 1 : 1 .

Random fertilization of these gametes woulc produce 9 : 3 : 3 : 1 ratio.

Monohybrid cross showing genotypic and phenotypic ratio among offspring. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">This law states <i>"when two pairs of contrasting traits (genetic character) are brought in the same cross,.-they remain together in offspring of Fi generation but .assort (separate) and reunite in new combination independently</i>." </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> After thorough study of single trait inheritance, Mendel decided to make a cross between two traits at the same time.

He selected two traits, one was "seed colour" and other was "seed shape". The seed colour had two phenotypes, yellow or green.

Similarly the other trait, seed shape had two distinct phenotypes, round or wrinkled. </span><br />
<br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZpBWqspURECNazwke14BotikSWnRBPHKN22GkF6gROLHQ7063r9-s0b_ZUSjQhzRxS9VyGEpn5t89UZGt6MrN9DLTOtyFgWfWqfFV4wIXro7Cgh72LZC3PCUxC_mle940v70w0yObJUE/s1600/independent+assortment.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="382" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZpBWqspURECNazwke14BotikSWnRBPHKN22GkF6gROLHQ7063r9-s0b_ZUSjQhzRxS9VyGEpn5t89UZGt6MrN9DLTOtyFgWfWqfFV4wIXro7Cgh72LZC3PCUxC_mle940v70w0yObJUE/s1600-rw/independent+assortment.png" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">LAw of Independent assortment</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Experiment #3</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Mendel took true breeding round and yellow seed plants, and crossed them with true breeding wrinkled green plants.

Round yellow x Round yellow .</span><br />
<h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">Conditions Necessary for Independent Assortment: </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;">According to the law of independent assortment, when two contrasting pairs of traits are brought together in the same cross, their alleles assort independently into gametes. This means alleles in one pair inherit independently the alleles of other pair..</span></div>

Mendle and pea

Father of Genetics Gregor Johann Mendle Gregor Johann Mendle was born in 1822. He was a priest by profession, but an amateur scientist...

Attention! Ad blocker Detected!

Educational Wealth

Solved papers: B.A English paper B 2014

Travel of Vasco –de-Gama

Travel of Ibne Batuta

Travel of Marco Polo's

Louis Pasteur

Mustafa kamal Pasha

Sir Alexander flamming

Darwinism

Lamark theory of evolution

Mendle and pea

Popular Posts

Tags

Blog Posts