Educational Wealth: Autumn 2021

Solved Assignment # 2 Islamiat FA Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou

Abdullah 0 316, aiou, Autumn 2021, solved assignment Saturday, January 29, 2022

<h2 style="text-align: left;">         Islamiat                      Autumn 2021          Code:316                  aiou  </h2>                                                    Solved Assignment #2<h3 style="text-align: left;">Q:1  Hadees ki deeni haisiat per jamia note tehreer kerain.</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">Q: 2 Akhuwat ,masawat per muzmoon kulam bund keejie.</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">Q: 3 Dianat dari awr eefaye ahad per ilehda ilehda note tehreer kerain</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">Q: 4 Waldain ke haqooq per jamia note tehreer kerain.</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;">Q: 5 Islam main khwateen ke muqam per muqamal muzmoon qulam bund kerain.</h3><h3 style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEh39Z2-VlFaN9FJiB8Hx51f-vX3IBYgDiYMBe8Ffk6JIneeErtbD5CVqYm_gyqmELBipTcZsFgib8SzCmJxnASJAHFg-fYWIncsB9BLAHIhT2fPp6nG4ETYB6kNfFlWfS6TzOiBdSZLRlTbMzht8Vhv3NT9WcmHVDgLLUpwbFCbpq_m8exLG9mgoyag=s3271" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; 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Solved Assignment # 2 Islamiat FA Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou

Islamiat Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou ...

Solved Assignment # 1 Islamiat FA Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou

Abdullah 0 316, aiou, aiou-, Autumn 2021, solved assignment Saturday, January 29, 2022

Islamiat                      Autumn 2021          Code:316                  aiou                                                      Solved Assignment #1<h4 style="text-align: left;"> Q: 1  Allah tabarak wa Talah ki zat wa sifat main shirk na kerne per Qurran Kareem ki ayat ke saath mufasel Muzmoon tehreer  kerain .</h4>Q: 2 Asmat Ambia per jamia note tehreer kerain.Q: 3 Risalat Hazrat Muhammad (PBUH) ki Khasoosiat tehreer kerain.Q: 4 Namaz ki Ahmiat awr is ke fawaid per jamia note tehreer kerain .Q: 5 Darj zail ayet kareema ka turjma wa tushreeh kerain .<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgm1TvdULnruBIZ2Rozujob1G-1SeXU_A8LJax_vb0EUXsZXaOh6q_wb2i4Pk-SKcR48kv2Jj_1APDwENgcoZMQnNQVjnY-SZMAoHmEjmxIPNg_w_xAhgsrTJJx563eVOTsCtMFpm609kTAGdS2U2lDo6NbZi9mA24d8On2XsctjujsLP_26ZpPuc9W=s3147" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3147" data-original-width="1898" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgm1TvdULnruBIZ2Rozujob1G-1SeXU_A8LJax_vb0EUXsZXaOh6q_wb2i4Pk-SKcR48kv2Jj_1APDwENgcoZMQnNQVjnY-SZMAoHmEjmxIPNg_w_xAhgsrTJJx563eVOTsCtMFpm609kTAGdS2U2lDo6NbZi9mA24d8On2XsctjujsLP_26ZpPuc9W=w386-h640-rw" width="386" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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Solved Assignment # 1 Islamiat FA Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou

Islamiat Autumn 2021 Code:316 aiou ...

Solved Assignment # 2 S.S BA Autumn 2021 Code:386 aiou

Abdullah 0 386, aiou, Autumn 2021, solved assignment Sunday, January 16, 2022

General Science        BA              Autumn 2021               Code:386                     aiou                                                                 Solved Assignment #2 <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhgGO-gdgW_FVwh6XFawvJanXc33Mg4k1P87QkKDoumdBAwO4v5UTdIHX2EzEAEiY5Pb50-CNHYMmN6wxKdSjfxbB565ngOBB0JKumfmf-xJaDkHyfS85k7ieedhbBdYfcvo0Z8ZsDnzl-1QZdiGzWFpxiENcwzXnKi8J11zpgRUPVSftKe1dLd79S2=s3548" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3548" data-original-width="1923" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhgGO-gdgW_FVwh6XFawvJanXc33Mg4k1P87QkKDoumdBAwO4v5UTdIHX2EzEAEiY5Pb50-CNHYMmN6wxKdSjfxbB565ngOBB0JKumfmf-xJaDkHyfS85k7ieedhbBdYfcvo0Z8ZsDnzl-1QZdiGzWFpxiENcwzXnKi8J11zpgRUPVSftKe1dLd79S2=w346-h640-rw" width="346" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiFucg5i-LFfDgx2Vuund3zw98yP5ZSdxrDKvH7yKC8iRK8WYyo9gYtPv5GocjO9Inc4PhDGOcH3jpJEQeHUEsJ45c6HvAzrntWSV71yp1DhNAYX1MAQUmqqf-TUnsGO4jBCL1UflZNaPjyUlYWHaeliDqwJe2XbyKOuvAKsv7ITZvUZ1D2Q7BfSR1l=s3190" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3190" data-original-width="1946" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiFucg5i-LFfDgx2Vuund3zw98yP5ZSdxrDKvH7yKC8iRK8WYyo9gYtPv5GocjO9Inc4PhDGOcH3jpJEQeHUEsJ45c6HvAzrntWSV71yp1DhNAYX1MAQUmqqf-TUnsGO4jBCL1UflZNaPjyUlYWHaeliDqwJe2XbyKOuvAKsv7ITZvUZ1D2Q7BfSR1l=w390-h640-rw" width="390" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjZbUivLo4YJ43i0NNc4WTuxiI6hllzt02755yIaCEVyyjwPGUX7Ov9tbmzRPgC0FQBn73KNQApOUuR3-FBP3VuvxELNLQjzr0SuJwlnzIkwn0F1s0D5mhrMAt89rt_u_-ckYffKkpVkQDDJZkApDL1Z5KWDu5W9o1HrrlhJuUx38ad6VOL098cYGbY=s2688" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2688" data-original-width="1835" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjZbUivLo4YJ43i0NNc4WTuxiI6hllzt02755yIaCEVyyjwPGUX7Ov9tbmzRPgC0FQBn73KNQApOUuR3-FBP3VuvxELNLQjzr0SuJwlnzIkwn0F1s0D5mhrMAt89rt_u_-ckYffKkpVkQDDJZkApDL1Z5KWDu5W9o1HrrlhJuUx38ad6VOL098cYGbY=w436-h640-rw" width="436" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiPsjg7_SPm_eicd5bjLHorktfDPBk0lo6jOe6Ijk5TxKSzTRxQY1wYCi1olsHS6wHfkX_fPCbecKTZFRrxiJhtMgh2az8d0TY-TCSEvvPXxs2TfVHOd3Pm_nzCTDH_GoBRN2LuQNs4vWC2e6RMOlVMQTNSdZB-r2VolJ-_MwbYYxd6ndE_4-5sDJTd=s3155" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3155" data-original-width="1931" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiPsjg7_SPm_eicd5bjLHorktfDPBk0lo6jOe6Ijk5TxKSzTRxQY1wYCi1olsHS6wHfkX_fPCbecKTZFRrxiJhtMgh2az8d0TY-TCSEvvPXxs2TfVHOd3Pm_nzCTDH_GoBRN2LuQNs4vWC2e6RMOlVMQTNSdZB-r2VolJ-_MwbYYxd6ndE_4-5sDJTd=w392-h640-rw" width="392" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEifw4C1cGD8GfFYkRavwV4G_2p3nHm76OsZ_dwmxSbr09an3Bs_KOy-eu5yl0bfsvshXM25JiceKZhtYxkZOkEpidAJY6LDvO5pcdr1jdJRmwCkmy7Niy0l3skmxIjnQSerSlGbPfp_WcYZWVdN1VzSQ7m8aycHROrM2qYSF7hLHFDYYSxSTzydhJee=s2735" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="2735" data-original-width="1692" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEifw4C1cGD8GfFYkRavwV4G_2p3nHm76OsZ_dwmxSbr09an3Bs_KOy-eu5yl0bfsvshXM25JiceKZhtYxkZOkEpidAJY6LDvO5pcdr1jdJRmwCkmy7Niy0l3skmxIjnQSerSlGbPfp_WcYZWVdN1VzSQ7m8aycHROrM2qYSF7hLHFDYYSxSTzydhJee=w396-h640-rw" width="396" /></a></div> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiMEb5QTpvernns-dbZYgtB184auD-ax-nyLgnRaIjiYnRUE_ww_4KNL-_XcwsQNmSvG9v7f_ggrc5MUph04SKheCN4vTozfpS6cqAPnHIpQ2SDDsSRJ_sz8uD3lGeiDzI63YedqRBPacKYcjT1SrOhSAd_1NTO9J8nUeoqbnH41mI5fDsbd6SSg-LB=s3867" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="3867" data-original-width="1837" height="640" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiMEb5QTpvernns-dbZYgtB184auD-ax-nyLgnRaIjiYnRUE_ww_4KNL-_XcwsQNmSvG9v7f_ggrc5MUph04SKheCN4vTozfpS6cqAPnHIpQ2SDDsSRJ_sz8uD3lGeiDzI63YedqRBPacKYcjT1SrOhSAd_1NTO9J8nUeoqbnH41mI5fDsbd6SSg-LB=w304-h640-rw" width="304" /></a></div>

Solved Assignment # 2 S.S BA Autumn 2021 Code:386 aiou

General Science BA Autumn 2021 Code:386 aiou ...

Solved Assignment # 2 S.Study BA Autumn 2021 Code:1431 aiou

Abdullah 0 1431, aiou, Autumn 2021, solved assignment Thursday, January 13, 2022

General Science        BA              Autumn 2021               Code:1431                     aiou                                                                 Solved Assignment #2<h4 style="text-align: left;">Q.l (a) What is meant by ICT. Describe it with the help of proper examples. </h4>Answer. ICT (information and communications technology is an umbrella term that includes any communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network hardware and software, satellite systems and so on. as well as the various services and applications associated with them, such as videoconferencing and distance learning. ICTs are often spoken of in a particular context, such as ICTs in education, health care, or libraries. The term is somewhat more common outside of the United States. Information: Information is generally referred to data which can be recorded, organized and interpreted within a context in order to convey meaning, For example “NADRA" (National Database & Registration Authority) is an organization which collects data from people. This data is basically organized or compiled with the help of computers for generating computerized National Identity Cards. Communication: Communication is basically the transfer of ideas and messages among people through different system, devices or media such as computer, internet, cell phone, telephone, television or radio etc..: A figure named as “Communication Model” (Figure 1) shows the above basic concept in a clear way: Cell Phone Internet Television Computer Toner/ink Paper Forms Output devices with non-transferable information: Monitors Displays Projectors Permanently mounted projectors Speakers Televisions Input devices: Mice Keyboards of all sorts Presenter devices Communication/Wiring/component hardware: Video and Audio cards Other internal computer components including add-on processors Adapters of all sorts  Cables (exception: network cables because of compatibility issues) USB Hubs Data storage devices of all sorts (note: Departments are responsible for securing Level 1 and 2 confidential data on all devices, including those excluded from this approval process) USB drives SD cards Hard drives Power adapters and UPS backup devices Personal devices and apps: Cameras Calculators <h4 style="text-align: left;">Q: 2  Write down the advantages and disadvantages of Information and Communication</h4><h4 style="text-align: left;">Technology” </h4>Answer ADVANTAGES 1. Communication - Speed / time - money can be saved because it’s much quicker to move information around. With the help of 1CT it has become quicker and more efficient. 2. Globalization - Video conferencing saves money on flights and accommodation. 1CT has not only brought the countries and people closer together, but it has allowed the world's economy to become a single interdependent system to contact either a business or family member. 3. Cost effectiveness - It feels free to send an email (although it isn’t); it’s without doubt cheaper than phone calls. ICT has also helped to automate business practices, thus restructuring businesses to make them exceptionally cost effective. 4. Greater Availability - ICT has made it possible for businesses to be automated giving clients access to a website or voicemail 24 hours a day, 7 days a week 5. Bridging the cultural gap - Greater access to technology has helped to bridge the cultural gap by helping people from different cultures to communicate with one another, and allow for the exchange of views and ideas, thus increasing awareness and reducing prejudice. 6. Creation of new jobs - Probably, the best advantage of ICT has been the creation of new and interesting jobs. 7. Education - Computer’s along with their programs and the Internet have created educational opportunities not available to previous generations. 8. Through ICT , images can easily be used in teaching and improving the retentive memory of student. 9. Complex structure - through ICT, teachers can easily explain complex structure ,instruction and ensure students comprehension. 10. Through ICT , teachers are able to create interactive classrooms and make the lesson more enjoyable.. DISADVANTAGES 1. Education - Computer’s along with their programs and the Internet have created educational opportunities not available to previous generations. 2. Lack of job security - Experts in a wide variety of fields believe that ICT has made job security a big issue, since technology keeps on changing nearly every day. This means that individuals need to be constantly studying or at least keeping up with changes in their profession, if they want to feel secure in their jobs to be secure. 3.Overriding Cultures - While ICT may have made the world a global village, it has also contributed to one culture consuming another weaker one. For example, it is now argued that teenagers in the US influence how most young teenagers all over the world now act, dress, and behave 4. Privacy - Though information technology may have made communication quicker, easier, and more convenient, it has also brought along privacy issues. From cell phone signal interceptions to e-mail hacking, people are now worried about their once private information becoming public knowledge. 5. Reliance on Technology - Professor Ian Robertson, a neuropsychology expert based at Trinity College Dublin who carried out the study, said: “People have more to remember these days, and they are relying on technology for their memory but the less you use of your memory, the poorer it becomes. . people don’t bother learning to spell because they use spell-checker, or need a calculator do perform minor addition or subtraction. 6. Reliability of Information - Anyone with access to a computer and an internet connection internet can start a blog or post something up on a website, so just because something’s on the web doesn't mean it’s reliable. A prime example of this is the open source encyclopedia, Wikipedia, although considered a good source of information it is not recognized by academic institutions as a trustworthy reference. 7.Computer viruses, worms, Trojans, malware, spam, phishing- any or all can cause chaos and disrupt our daily lives 8.Setting - setting up the device can be very trouble some. 9. Expansive - too expansive to afford. 10. Lack of experience - har d for teachers to use with a lack of experience using ICT tools. Question no 2 List the hardware components of a computer. Explain at least five of them in detail. Answer. Computer hardware (usually simply called hardware when a computing context is concerned) is the collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system. Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as the monitor, mouse, keyboard,computer data storage, hard disk drive (HDD), graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard, and so on, all of which are physical objects that are tangible. In contrast, software is instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Software is any set of machine-readable instructions that directs a computer’s processor to perform specific operations. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system. * A motherboard * A Central Processing Unit (CPU) * A Graphrcs Processing Unit (GPU), also known as a video card * Random Access Memory (RAM), also known as volatile memory * Storage: Solid State Drive (SSD) or Hard Disk Drive (HDD)  Motherboard * animated diagram of computer parts In terms of construction, each of these main components are attached to the motherboard and then put into a protective case—resembling the clean, polished look most of us are accustomed to seeing. Sure, most computers have their own distinct design - and different brands of hardware installed - but the components listed above are standard across all computers. Important: A quick note before we dive into the details—I’m listing and talking about the different components of a computer. This is by no means intended to be an invitation to disassemble your computer, nor is it a set of instructions to do so. Without the proper knowledge, you can severely damage your computer, and importantly, doing so is unsafe. 1. Motherboard What it is: All components of a computer communicate through a circuit board called the motherboard, as was mentioned above. What it does: Think of the motherboard as the glue that holds everything else together. (The Raspberry Pi, like the one featured in our summer course for kids, Build and Code Your Own Take-Home Laptop, is a motherboard.) The motherboard’s video card and Central Processing Unit are contained in an integrated (built-in) chipset, shown in the picture Below This is where input/output devices such as a keyboard, mouse, and speakers get plugged in. 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) What it is: The CPU is often called the "brain" of a computer, thanks to its direct plug connection to the motherboard, and communication with all of the computer’s other components. What it does: Whenever you write a line of code (in Python, Java, C++, or any other programming language), it's broken down into assembly language—which is a language that the processor can understand. It fetches, decodes, and executes these instructions. And that’s where the CPU comes in—all the processes a computer handles are taken care of by the CPU. 3. Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) What it is: It’s not uncommon to hear gamers obsess over the next new graphics card, as these graphic cards make it possible for computers to generate high-end visuals like those found in the many different types of video games. In addition to video games, though, good graphics cards also come in handy for those who rely on images in order to execute their craft, like 3D modelers using resource-intensive software. What it does: Graphics cards often communicate directly with the display monitor, meaning a $1,000 graphics card won't be of much use if there isn't a high-end monitor connected to it. 4. Random Access Memory (RAM) What it is: RAM, also known as volatile memory, stores data regarding frequently accessed programs and processes. (It's called volatile memory because it gets erased eveiy time the computer restarts.) What it does: RAM helps programs and games start up and close quickly. 5. Storage What it is: All computers need somewhere to store their data. Modem computers either use a Hard Disk Drive (HDD) or Solid State Drive (SSD). What it does: HDDs are made of an actual disk onto which data is stored. The disk is read by a mechanical aim. (HDDs are cheaper than SSDs, but are slowly becoming more and more obsolete.) SSDs (think SIM cards) have no moving parts and are faster than a hard drive, because no time is spent waiting for a mechanical arm to find data on a physical location on the disk Q.3 Differentiate between Input and Output Devices with the help of suitable examples. Answer. An input device sends information to a computer system for processing, and an output device reproduces or displays the results of that processing. Input devices only allow for input of data to a computer and output devices only receive the output of data from another device. Most devices are only input devices or output devices, as they can only accept data input from a user or output data generated by a computer. However, some devices can accept input and display output, and they are referred to as I/O devices (input/output devices). For example, as shown in the top half of the image, a keyboard sends electrical signals, which are received as input. Those signals are then interpreted by the computer and displayed, or output, on the monitor as text or images. In the lower half of the image, the computer sends, or outputs, data to a printer. Then, that data is printed onto a piece of paper, which is also considered output. Output devices An output device can receive data from another device and generate output with that data, but it cannot send data to another device. Examples of output devices include the following. Monitor - Receives data from a computer (output) and displays that information as text and images for users to view. It cannot accept data from a user and send that data to another device. Projector - Receives data from a computer (output) and displays, or projects, that information as text and images onto a surface, like a wall or screen. It cannot accept data from a u An input device can send data to another device, but it cannot receive data from another device. Examples of input devices include the tbllowin Speakers - Receives sound data from a computer and plays the sounds for users to hear. It cannot accept sound generated by users and send that sound to another device. Input devices Keyboard and Mouse - Accepts input from a user and sends that data (input) to the computer. They cannot accept or reproduce information (output) from the computer. Microphone - Receives sound generated by an input source, and sends that sound to a computer. Webcam - Receives images generated by whatever it is pointed at (input) and sends those images to a computer. Imaging and Input Devices The sensor is seen here on a TV. It works by detecting human motion visually. Microsoft Kinect sensor Q3-b  Video input devices are used to digitize images or video from the outside world into the computer. The information can be stored in a multitude of formats depending on the user’s requirement. Digital camera Digital camcorder Portable media player Webcam Microsoft Kinect Sensor Image scanner Fingerprint scanner Barcode reader 3D scanner z Laser rangefinder Eye gaze tracker Medical Imaging Computed tomography Magnetic resonance imaging Positron emission tomography Medical ultrasonography Audio Input Devices Audio input devices are used to capture sound. In some cases, an audio output device can be used as an input device, in order to capture produced sound. Microphones MIDI keyboard or other digital musical instrument Output Devices An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically generated information into human-readable form. Display Devices A display device is an output device that visually conveys text, graphics, and video information. Information shown on a display device is called soft copybecause the information exists electronically and is displayed for a temporary period of time. Display devices include CRT monitors, LCD monitors and displays, gas plasma monitors, and televisions. Input/Output Inputs are processed and become outputs Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. There are many input and output devices such as multifunction printers and computer-based navigation systems that are used for specialised or unique applications.[6] In computing, input/output refers to the communication between aninformation processing system (such as a computer), and the outside world. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system, and outputs are the signals or data sent from it. Examples These examples of output devices also include input/output devices. [7] [8] Printers and visual displays are the most common type of output device for interfacing to people, but voice is becoming increasingly available. [9]  Speakers >Headphones >Screen (Monitor) > Printer > Voice output communication aid > Automotive navigation system > Braille embosser > Projector > Plotter > Television Radio  Q. 4 Write short notes on the following topics: • Process and Memory Management Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory, assigning portions called blocks to various running programs to optimize overall system performance. Memory management is the process of controlling and coordinating computer memory, assigning portions called blocks to various running programs to optimize overall system performance. Memory management resides in hardware, in the OS (operating system), and in programs and applications. In hardware, memory management involves components that physically store data, such as RAM (random access memory) chips, memory caches, and flash-based SSDs (solid-state drives). In the OS, memory management involves the allocation (and constant reallocation) of specific memory blocks to individual programs as user demands change. At the application level, memory management ensures the availability of adequate memory for the objects and data structures of each running program at all times. Application memory management combines two related tasks, known as allocation and recycling. When the program requests a block of memory, a part of the memory manager called the allocator assigns that block to the program. When a program no longer needs the data in previously allocated memory blocks, those blocks become available for reassignment. This task can be done manually (by the programmer) or automatically (by the memory manager). Several methods have been devised that increase the effectiveness of memory management. Virtual memory systems separate the memory addresses used by a process from actual physical addresses, allowing separation of processes and increasing the size of the virtual address space beyond the available amount of RAM using paging or swapping to secondary storage. The quality of the virtual memory manager can have an extensive effect on overall system performance. In some operating systems, e.g. OS/360 and successors,[2] memory is managed by the operating system. In other operating systems, e.g. Unix-like operating systems, memory is managed at the application level. Memory management within an address space is generally categorized as either manual memory management or automatic memory management. • Unix and Linux Unix is considered as the mother of most of the operating systems. The design of Unix systems is based on “Unix Philosophy” which includes the following characteristics: Usage of plain text for data storage. Hierarchical file system. Handling devices and some specific kinds of inter-process communication (IPC) as files. Employing a huge number of software tools. Multiple small, simple and modular programs which can be threaded together via a command-line interpreter using pipes, contrasting to use a single monolithic program which comprises of all the same functionality. It’s worth mentioning here the below quote about Unix Philosophy: “Although that philosophy can’t be written down in a single sentence, as its heart is the idea that the power of a system comes more from the relationships among programs than from the programs themselves. Many UNIX programs do quite trivial tilings in isolation, but, combined with other programs, become general and useful tools.” - Brian Kemighan & Rob Pike UNIX ARCHITECTURE The master control program of Unix is its Kernel. The kernel has fiill control over the entire system. It has subsystems that offer services to file system handling, resource handling, memory management, start & stop programs and few other low-level core tasks. The kernel is the heart of the OS and acts as an interface between the user and hardware. Each kernel subsystem has certain features like concurrency, virtual memory, paging, and a virtual file system. In the outer layers of the architecture, we have the shell, commands and application programs. Shell is the interface between the user and the kernel. Shell and the user types in the commands, interpret these commands and call the computer programs accordingly. Example of the Unix operating system is Solaris and HP-UX. The largest distributors of UNIX systems include IBM, HP, and SUN. Recommended Read => Free Unix Training Tutorials What is Linux? By now you would have got a fair idea about Unix. Let’s now explore Linux in detail. People do confuse a lot between the terms Unix and Linux and they generally ask questions like “Is Unix Different from Linux?” / “Are Linux and Unix the same thing?” I “Is Linux like Unix?”/ “Is Linux built on Unix?”.  Here is the answer to all such questions. First, let me clear your confusion in a one-liner. Linux and Unix are different but they do have a relationship with each other as Linux is derived from Unix. Linux is not Unix, but it is a Unix-like operating system. Linux system is derived from Unix and it is a continuation of the basis of Unix design. Linux distributions are the most famous and healthiest example of the direct Unix derivatives. BSD (Berkley Software Distribution) is also an example of a Unix derivative. At this juncture, it is important for us to make you clear about what is Unix-like? A Unix-like OS (also called as UN*X or *nix) is the one that works in a way similar to Unix systems, however, it is not necessary that they conform to Single UNIX Specification (SUS) or similar POSIX (Portable Operating System Interface) standard. SUS is a standard which is required to be met for any OS to qualify for using ‘UNIX’ trademark. This trademark is granted by ‘The Open Group’. Few Examples of currently registered UNIX systems include macOS, Solaris, and A1X. If we consider the POSIX system, then Linux can be regarded as Unix-like OS. As per Linux kernel official README file, Linux is a UNIX clone that is developed from scratch by Linus Torvalds and team. It targets for POSIX compliance. Tire Linux kernel code was completely written from scratch. It is designed in such a way so that it acts like Unix but it does not have the original Unix code in it. It is also significant to note that Linux is just the kernel and not the complete OS. This Linux kernel is generally packaged in Linux distributions which thereby makes it a complete OS. Thus, Linux is only the Kernel, while Linux distributions can be treated as the OS. On the other hand, UNIX in itself is a complete OS as everything (all required application tied together) comes from a single vendor. For Example, Solaris. Linux distribution (also called as a distro in short) is an operating system that is created from a collection of softwar e built upon the Linux Kernel and is a package management system. A standard Linux distribution consists of a Linux kernel, GNU system, GNU utilities, libraries, compiler, additional software, documentation, a window system, window manager and a desktop environment.Most of the software included in Linux distribution is free and open source. They may include some proprietary software like binary blobs which is essential for a few device drivers. Q5 What are important types of communication media? Differentiate between analog and digital transmission Answer. The crucial difference between Analog and Digital Communication is that Analog communication uses analog signals for transmission and reception of data while digital communication uses digital signals for transmitting and receiving data. Analog signals are the continuous time-varying signal while digital signals are those which consist of discrete values. Digital communication provides various advantages such as it is immune to noise and distortion as it possesses greater signal to noise ratio. The uses of repeaters in case of digital communication improve the SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) further. Moreover, digital communication requires less power than analog communication. Difference between Analog Communication and Digital Communication : ANALOG Digital In analog communication analog In digital communication digital signal is used for transmission. 01. information Analog communication signal is used for transmission, uses digital signal is of two levels either Low i.e., o or either High i.e., In digital uses analog signal communication 02. whose amplitude varies coding is possible. Different coding continuously with time from 0 to 100. techniques can be used to detect and correct errors. It gets affected by Separating out ’n noise and signal in digital noise highly communication is possible. during Digital 03. transmission through communication channel. In analog communication only limited 04. number of channels can be broadcasted simultaneously. 05. high. In analog communication noise immunity is 06. poor. In analog communication coding is not possible. Separating out 08. analog communication system is having less complex hardware and more flexible. In Digital communication coding is possible. Different coding techniques can be used to detect and correct errors. Separating out ’n noise and signal in digital communication is possible. Digital communication system is having less complex hardware and more flexible. In Digital communication for multiplexing Time Division Multiplexing Digital communication system is high cost. noise and signal in communication is not possible. Analog communication 09. system is having complex hardware and less flexible. In analog communication for multiplexing Frequency. 10. Division Multiplexing Analog 11. communication system is low cost. 12. It requires low bandwidth. Power 13. consumption is high. 14. It is less portable. No privacy or 15. privacy is less so not highly secured Not assures an 16. accurate data transmission. It requires high bandwidth. Power consumption is low. Portability is high. Privacy is high so it is highly secured. It assures a more accurate data transmission. Synchronization problem is easier. 17. Synchronization problem.