2nd Assignment 8602 aiou autumn 2019

2nd Assignment 8602 aiou autumn 2019

Q.1 State different methods to enhance the reliability of the mea explain each type by providing examples.

Interpreter reliability

Interpreter reliability (also called interobserver reliability) measures the degree of agreement between different people observing or assessing the same thing. You use it when data is collected by researchers assigning ratings, scores or categories to one or more variables.

Interpreter reliability example

A team of researchers observe the progress of wound healing in patients. To record the stages of healing, rating scales are used, with a set of criteria to assess various aspects of wounds. The results of different researchers assessing the same set of patients are compared, and there is a strong correlation between all sets of results, so the test has high interpreter reliability.

In an observational study where a team of researchers collect data on classroom behavior, interrater reliability is important: all the researchers should agree on how to categorize or rate different types of behavior.

Parallel forms reliabilits

It measures the correlation between two equivalent versions of a test. You when you have two different assessment tools or sets of questions designed to measure the same thing.

A set of questions is formulated to measure financial risk aversion in a group of respondents. The questions are randomly divided into two sets, and the respondents are randomly divided into two groups. Both groups take both tests: group .A takes test A first, and group B takes test B first. The results of the two tests are compared, and the results are almost identical, indicating high parallel forms reliability.

Internal consistency

To measure customer satisfaction with an online store, you could create a questionnaire with a set of statements that respondents must agree or disagree with. Internal consistency tells you whether the statements are all reliable indicators of customer satisfaction.

Split-half reliability: You randomly split a set of measures into two sets. After testing the entire set on the respondents, you calculate the correlation between the two sets of responses.

A group of respondents are presented with a set of statements designed to measure optimistic and pessimistic mindsets. They must rate their agreement with each statement on a scale from 1 to 5. If the test is internally consistent, an optimistic respondent should generally give high ratings to optimism indicators and low ratings to pessimism indicators. The correlation is calculated between all the responses to the “optimistic” statements, but the correlation is very weak. This suggests that the test has low internal consistency.

Q.2 Explain the effects of curricular validity on performance of the examinees. Also how can you measure the curricular validity of tests elaborate in detail?

Validity is defined by how well a test measures what it’s supposed to measure.

Curricular validity refers to how well test items reflect the actual curriculum (i.e. a test is supposed to be a measure of what’s on the curriculum).

A similar term is instructional validity, which is how well the test items reflect what is actually taught. McClung defines instructional validity as “an actual measure of whether the schools are providing students with instruction in the knowledge and skills measured by the test.”

Curricular validity:

Teachers follow a curriculum, students learn what is on the curriculum through their teachers.

However, it doesn’t always follow that a child will be taught what is on the curriculum. Many

hat parts of the c

things can have an impact on what parts of the curriculum are taught (or not taught), including:

1.        Inexperienced teachers,
2.    Substitute teachers,
4.      Poorly managed schools/flow of information,
5.       Teachers may choose not to teach specific parts of the curriculum they don’t agree with (e.g. evolution or sex education),
6.       Teachers might skip over parts of the curriculum they don’t fully understand (like mathematics. According to this report, elementary school teachers struggle with basic math concepts).

Curricular validity is usually measured by a panel of curriculum experts. It’s not measured tatistically, but rather by a rating of “valid” or “not valid.” A test that meets one definition of validity might not meet another. For example, a test might have curricular validity, but not instructional validity and vice versa. measure the curricular validity of tests: purpose for which they are being used. Use assessment tools that are appropriate for the target population.

What makes a good test?

An employment test is considered "good" if the following can be said about it:

The test measures what it claims to measure consistently or reliably. This means that if a person were to take the test again, the person would get a similar test score.

The test measures what it claims to measure. For example, a test of mental ability does in fact measure mental ability, and not some other characteristic.

The test is job-relevant. In other words, the test measures one or more characteristics that are important to the job.

By using the test, more effective employment decisions can be made about individuals. For example, an arithmetic test may help you to select qualified workers for a job that requires knowledge of arithmetic operations.

The degree to which a test has these qualities is indicated by two technical properties: reliability and validity.

Test reliability

Reliability refers to how dependably or consistently a test measures a characteristic. If a person takes the test again, will he or she get a similar test score, or a much different score? A test that yields similar scores for a person who repeats the test is said to measure a characteristic reliably.

How do we account for an individual who does not get exactly the same test score every time he or she takes the test? Some possible reasons are the following:

physical state. Test performance can be influenced by a person's psychological or physical state at the time of testing. For example, differing levels of anxiety, fatigue, or motivation may affect the applicant's test results.

1.   Environmental factors. Differences in the testing environment, such as room temperature, lighting, noise, or even the test administrator, can influence an individual's test performance.

2.   Test form. Many tests have more than one version or form. Items differ on each form, but each form is supposed to measure the same thing. Different forms of a test are known as parallel forms or alternate forms.

3.   Multiple raters. In certain tests, scoring is determined by a rater's judgments of the test taker's performance or responses. Differences in training, experience, and frame of reference among raters can produce different test scores for the test taker.

Principle of Assessment: Use only reliable assessment instruments and procedures. In other words, use only assessment tools that provide dependable and consistent information.

These factors are sources of chance or random measurement error in the assessment process. If there were no random errors of measurement, the individual would get the same test score, the individual's "true" score, each time. The degree to which test scores are unaffected by measurement errors             is an indication of the reliability of the test.

Reliable assessment tools produce dependable, repeatable, and consistent information about people. In order to meaningfully interpret test scores and make useful employment or career- related ¹ need reliable tools. This brings us to the next principle of assessment.

Q.3 Write down learning  outcomes for any unit of Social Studies for 8^th grade and develop an essay type test item with rubric, 5 multiple choice questions and 5 short questions for the written learning outcomes.

Answer:

Social Studies is a main subject of our curriculum and is being taught in our schools and colleges. It is a language basically and study of Social Studies language, composition, grammar and the literature.8th class Social Studies paper consists of 20% of objective and multiple choice questions are main part of it. It has provided the excellent opportunity for the student of 8thth class to prepare their Social Studies paper online. On this page, 9th class students can easily judge their eligibility of passing examination in notable grades.

9th class students can prepare their subject online here which will be beneficial for them in passing Social Studies subject with exceptional marks. This online Social Studies test contains large number of multiple choice questions and by attempting these online papers; students can judge their Social Studies preparation in a better way.

9th class Students can analyze their self by attempting this online test system as many time as they want until unless they find their self fully prepared. 9th class students are advised to attempt this online test for Social Studies subject.Humans are linguistic animals. Language is the most fundamental and pervasive tool we have for interpreting our world and communicating with others as we act in and attempt to transform that world. Whether they pursue an emphasis in literature or writing, Social Studies majors gain a deeper understanding of the resources of the written word. Both literature and writing courses help students explore how writers use the creative resources of language-in fiction, poetry, nonfiction prose, and drama-to explore the entire range of human experience. Social Studies courses help students build skills of analytical and interpretive argument; become careful and critical readers; practice writing-in a variety of genres-as a process of intellectual inquiry and creative expression; and ultimately to become more effective thinkers and communicators who -equipped for a variety of careers in our information-intensive society.

Specific learning outcomes for Social Studies courses include the following:

1-Reading: Students will become accomplished, active readers who appreciate ambiguity and complexity, and who can articulate their own interpretations with an awareness and curiosity for other perspectives.

2-Writing skills and process: Students will be able to write effectively for a variety of professional and social settings. They will practice writing as a process of motivated inquiry, engaging other writers’ ideas as they explore and develop their own. They will demonstrate an ability to revise for content and edit for grammatical and stylistic clarity. And they will develop an awareness of and confidence in their own voice as a writer.

1-Sense of Genre: Students will develop an appreciation of how the formal elements of language and genre shape meaning. They will recognize how writers can transgress or subvert generic expectations, as well as fulfill them. And they will develop a facility at writing in appropriate genres for a variety of purposes and audiences.

2-Culture and History: Students will gain a knowledge of the major traditions of literatures written in Social Studies, and an appreciation for the diversity of literary and social voices within-and sometimes marginalized by-those traditions. They will develop an ability to read texts in relation to their historical and cultural contexts, in order to gain a richer understanding of both text and context, and to become more aware of themselves as situated historically and cu

3-Critical Approaches: Students will develop the ability to read works of literary,

community of interpre critical and theoretical

rhetorical, and cultural criticism, and deploy ideas from these texts in their own reading and writing. They will express their own ideas as informed opinions that are in dialogue with a larger interpreters, and understand how their own approach compares to the variety of approaches.

4-Research Skills: Students will be able to identify topics and formulate questions for productive inquiry; they will identify appropriate methods and sources for research and evaluate critically the sources they find; and they will use their chosen sources effectively in their own writing, citing all sources appropriately.

5-Oral communication skills: Students will demonstrate the skills needed to participate in a conversation that builds knowledge collaboratively: listening carefully and respectfully to others’ viewpoints; articulating their own ideas and questions clearly; and situating their own ideas in relation to other voices and ideas. Students will be able to prepare, organize, and deliver an engaging oral presentation.

6-Valuing literature, language, and imagination: Students will develop a passion for literature and language. They will appreciate literature’s ability to elicit feeling, cultivate the imagination, and call us to account as humans. They will cultivate their capacity to judge the aesthetic and ethical value of literary texts-and be able to articulate the standards behind their judgments. They will appreciate the expressive use of language as a fundamental and sustaining human activity, preparing for a life of learning as readers and writers.

Q.4 Describe the measures of central tendency. Also elaborate how these measures can be utilized in the interpretation of the test results. Provide examples where necessary.

Ans:A measure of central tendency is a summary statistic that represents the center point or typical value of a dataset. These measures indicate where most values in a distribution fall and are also referred to as the central location of a distribution. You can think of it as the tendency of data to cluster around a middle value. In statistics, the three most common measures of central tendency are the mean, median, and mode. Each of these measures calculates the location of the central point using a different method.

Choosing the best measure of central tendency depends on the type of data you have. In this post, explore these measures of central tendency, show you how to calculate them, and how to determine which one is best for your data.

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Central Tendency provide a summary measure that attempts to describe a whole set of data with a single value that represents the middle or center of its distribution. There are three main measures of central tendency: the mean, the median and the mode.

When data is normally distributed, the mean, median and mode should be identical, and are all effective in showing the most typical value of a data set.

It's important to look the dispersion of a data set when interpreting the measures of central tendency.

Mean

The mean of a data set is also known as the average value. It is calculated by dividing the sum of all values in a data set by the number of values.

So in a data set of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, we would calculate the mean by adding the values (1+2+3+4+5) and dividing by the total number of values (5). Our mean then is 15/5, which equals 3.

Disadvantages to the mean as a measure of central tendency are that it is highly susceptible to outliers (observations which are markedly distant from the bulk of observations in a data set), and that it is not appropriate to use when the data is skewed, rather than being of a normal distribution.

The median of a data set is the value that is at the middle of a data set arranged from smallest to largest.

In the data set 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, the median is 3.

The median is appropriate to use with ordinal variables, and with interval variables

The mode is the most common observation of a data set, or the value in the data set that occurs most frequently.

The mode has several disadvantages. It is possible for two modes to appear in the one data set (e.g. in: 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, both 2 and 5 are the modes).

In data analysis and interpretation, it is important to understand the normal curve. As illustrated below, the normal curve is bell-shaped. The normal curve represents the normal frequency distributions for such things as height, weight, and intelligence quotient. The normal curve helps determine probabilities (chances) for various sample results when the characteristics (behaviors) being measured should be normally distributed. A normal distribution is required in order to accurately use certain advanced statistical analyses.

Measures of Dispersion

• A frequency distribution is defined as an arrangement of numbers that shows the number of times a given score occurs. You can graphically represent frequencies using histograms and frequency polygons.

1.       The range is the simplest measure of dispersion. It is defined as the highest score minus the lowest score + 1. The range is used to describe the limits of a sample of data.
3.         The standard deviation tells you if the majority of the scores fall close to the mean value or are widely dispersed. When the standard deviation is large, the mean score is not a good descriptor of all respondents. If the standard deviation is small, most scores are close to the value of the mean and the mean is a good representation of the typical

 BackToTop

Was the level of difficulty appropriate?

Did most of the participants understand the question? Was the item well-constructed?

Was each distracter in the multiple-choice questions  .Item difficulty measures the proportion of the course participants who correctly answered each test item. Item analysis answers questions such as the following:

effective?

Item Analysis

Identify questions that everyone got right or got wrong. You want to analyze those items to ensure that they are valid and reliable.

Pinpoint areas participants found difficult. Missed items may be an indicator that participants did not understand the material. Finding that certain items were missed by many participants could have implications for instruction such as:

1-                  Why were some items difficult?

2-                  Had the work been covered?

3-                  Had the information been taught adequately?

4-                  Answering these questions is an important part of the formative evaluation process.

Interpreting the Data

You can use such tools as charts (e.g., pie, bar, line), tables, checklists, matrices, flowcharts, and historical time lines to display the data.

Interpreting the data involves making judgments based on information compiled during the tabulation and analysis of the data. The results of your analysis and the judgments you make will influence the conclusions you draw and the recommendations you make.

Interpretation of data is:

A challenging job because there are no "hard and fast" rules that apply. Instead, your interpretation is based on experience and your ability to make sense of the data. If you are good at interpreting the data, your findings will probably have some merit. On the other hand, if you misinterpret the data, you will be operating from faulty conclusions. That is why it is important to collaborate with others in interpreting the data. It is better to get several viewpoints to make sure that everyone is "seeing the same thing."

stions.

Mostly a subjective process, even though it is grounded in careful quantitative and qualitative analysis. You decide what findings represent a pattern, an inefficiency, an emerging problem, a strength, a best practice, a barrier, or a weakness. Your creative insight will make the difference between a mediocre report and one that has potentially useful suggest

Q.5 Briefly describe the present trends and classroom techniques used by teachers for the formative assessment of the students learning. Also enlist the components of good progress report

Ans:

Formative assessment strategies in the classroom provide both teachers and students with invaluable information about what students understand, and what they don’t. These ungraded assessments are valuable guides for students to help them enhance their performance. They help teachers determine if further instruction is necessary.

When formative assessments are used consistently, and effectively, neither teachers nor students are surprised by their final grades. Some formative assessments can take just a few minutes, while others require longer periods of time. The following are 5 great formative assessment strategies for teachers.

A great deal of information can be learned from students’ homework, tests, and quizzes— especially if the students are required to explain their thinking. When teachers take the time to analyze student work, they gain knowledge about:

A student's current knowledge, attitudes, and skills about subject matter Strengths, weaknesses, and learning Need for further.

The analysis of students’ classroom work allows teachers to modify their instruction so that they will be more effective in the future.

Questioning strategies may be used with individuals, small groups, or the entire class. Effective formative assessment strategies involve asking students to answer well-thought-out, higher-order questions such as “why” and “how.” Higher-order questions require more in-depth thinking from the students, and help the teacher discern the level and extent of the students’ understanding. You can find plenty of question prompts on our Critical Thinking Cheatsheet.Another strategic

questioning strategy used in formative assessment is to give the students a "wait time" to respond. Studies have found that most students become more engaged in classroom dialogue when higher-order questions are combined with a wait period.

 THINK-PAIR-SHARE

This is one of the many formative assessment strategies that is simple for teachers to use. The instructor asks a question, and students write down their answers. Students are then placed in

Teachers are able to move around the classroom and listen to various discussions, gaining insight into an individual’s levels of understanding. After a time, the students discuss their responses with the entire class.

Research has indicated that when students are responsible for their own learning, their performance is enhanced. This is another benefit of formative assessment strategies, especially this one.

 EXIT/ADMIT TIC

A simple but effective formative assessment is the Exit Ticket. Exit Tickets are small pieces of paper, or index cards, that students deposit as they leave the classroom. Students are required to write down an accurate interpretation of the main idea behind the lesson taught that day, and then provide more detail about the topic.

Teachers review the responses, and gain insight as to which students have fully learned the concept, and those that are still struggling. The information obtained can be used to plan a whole-group or partial-group lesson to re-teach the concept.

Tickets are done at the very beginning of the class. Students may respond to questions about homework, or on the lesson taught the day before.

 ONE-MINUTE PAPERS

One-minute papers are usually done at the end of the day. Students in groups (or individually) are asked to answer a brief question in writing. The papers are collected and analyzed by the instructor to gain awareness of the students’ understanding. One-minute papers have been found to be more effective when done on a frequent basis. Typical questions posed by teachers center around:

Main point

Most surprising concept Questions not answered Most confusing area of topic

What question from the topic might appear on the next test?

Without formative assessments, the first indication that a student doesn’t grasp the material is when they fail a quiz or a test. Effective and engaging formative assessment strategies like this can take failure out of the classroom.

Progress Reports

Jonah has a big project at work that's really stressing him out. He has to coordinate several people who are all in charge of part of the project, and he has to make sure that it's all done on time. And now, his boss has asked him for a progress report. Jonah doesn't know what to put in the report or how to format it.

A progress report is a written record of what has been done and what is left to do on a project. That is, it is a report of the progress that has been made on the project, which is why it is aptly named a progress report.

Progress reports serve several functions. They can reassure the recipients that progress is being made (or inform them of delays in a project), like Jonah updating his boss on the project at work. Progress reports can also be used to establish and formalize duties of team members, tie down a work schedule for a project, and discuss possible problems in the project or its timeline.

To help Jonah write his progress report, let's look at the common formats of a progress report and the content, or what he should include in the report.

Progress reports can come in many different forms, but there are three primary formats that most people use for their progress reports:

1.       Memo: Often, a short memo is all that is needed for a progress report that is shared within an organization. For example, Jonah's progress report is going to his boss, and he'll also give copies to all the project members. Since all of them work at the same company, he might choose to write the progress report as a memo.

2.       Letter or email: Sometimes, instead of a memo, people choose to write progress reports as letters or, more commonly today, emails. Like memos, these types of progress reports are generally short. However, unlike memos, letters and emails are reports that can be shared either within or outside of an organization. So if, for example, Jonah needed to share the progress report both with his boss and with his company's client, he might choose a letter or email.

3.       Formal report: Both memos and emails are pretty informal. But the third common format is a formal report. This is a longer document, and it is often bound in a binder or presentation folder. Formal reports are usually used for progress reports that are shared outside of an organization. For example, if Jonah were writing a progress report for the client, he might choose to share in a formal report.

Since Jonah's progress report is going out to his boss and coworkers, he probably won't want to format it as a formal report. He could present it as a memo or letter, but Jonah thinks that email is a good format for it. It's convenient, and everyone can have an electronic copy saved.