Educational Wealth

Examinations

Abdullah 0 Friday, March 21, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Outline </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1-Judge the knowledge</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 2-Scale of measuring intelligence</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 3-Healthy competition </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4-Fair selection in jobs </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5-Cramming </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6-Dependence on luck </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7-Moral side of person</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8-Unfair means </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">9-Power of intelligence</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">10-Instruction to improve system </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The human need to judge the knowledge and learning of many persons at the same time and grade them accordingly gave birth to the system of examinations. They became all the more necessary with the progress in education and the advancement in culture and technology. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Examinations</td><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><br /></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Perhaps they are the only means to judge the knowledge and learning of many persons simultaneously.

Examination is a word which contains a great fear for the sjudents. But it lost impossible think of any aspect of life without an lination. They have been there in the world ever since the human race into existence. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Throughout the world in colleges and universities the examinations are considered as the scale to measure the ability of the students. Unless the students are periodically examined their progress cannot be

fitly measured.The universities cannot award degrees testifying the candidates for different jobs.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> As regards the students the examinations make them work hard. They have to go through all the courses of studies as they do not know which questions are to be set in the examination. Thus, examinations promote healthy competition among the students. Examinations provide a great incentive and stimulus to work. Most of

students would not work hard without the fear of examination. It majority of the students are not regular workers.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is only with the approach of the pination that they get serious about their studies. Examination brings out the that is in them.

Examinations prove helpful in selecting competent persons for important posts; the right man for the right job. The selection is fair and impartia1 as the examiner marks each paper according to its worth, without any prejudice.If there were no examinations, fair selection would have been almost impossible.

But examinations are not without defects. They make the students resort"' to cramming. They learn by rote as many questions as they can, and depend upon them for their success; It is so because thorough understanding of anything requires deep thinking and very few people are inclined to that. They accept ready-made ideas, and prefer cramming to using their brains. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> In an examination, much depends on luck. The question paper may contain the same questions which an examinee has memorized or it may have none of such questions. Thus the success or failure of the person may not be the true measure of his knowledge. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Another aspect of examinations is that they encourage forming and superficial work. They are not a sure test of one’s ability. Chance and luck thoroughly and by chance a question is set in the paper thatchapter the candidate would fare much better as compared with other candidates who unfortunately have not master that chapter so well. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Examinations ignore the moral side of a person which is an essential part of his personality. Education docs not mean knowledge of books alone. It concerns the whole man—his mental enlightenment" and moral excellence. The examinations can test the knowledge but not the morals.

However, the demerits of examinations do not lessen their importance.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is not likely that such an alternative will ever be found.

The use of unfair means in examinations is quite common these days . The examination centres are sold and bought by "Qabza group". Candidates resort to copying greasing the palm of the invigilators. They move heaven and earth to approach the examiners. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The department should adopt the following measures to mitigate the prevalent evils .Objective type tests in place of "Essay Type Tests" should be  introduced. These tests have more reliability and practicability. These help us to test more exactly what we intend to test on a wider range. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Secondly, the examination centres should be declared prohibited areas where trespassers and miscreants should not be allowed to enter under any circumstances. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Honest teachers with good reputation should be appointed as invigilators on the special recommendations of the principals and headmasters. If they are still caught indulging in foul practices

they should be given exemplary punishments. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">By adopting such stringent measures we can purge our examination centres of prevalent evils.

In conclusion, we may say that the system of examinations has to continue. However there, is much room for improvement in the present system. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The questions set in the examination should test the power of comprehension and the intelligence of a student and not the amount of knowledge he has temporarily stored in his brain. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The system of examinations should be overhauled because without changes we may not develop the talents of the students. Now a days greater emphasis is laid upon mugging up facts without co-relating them with the practical life. This simply means that the system of education is divorced from the day-today problems of life. The candidates should be given ample time to answer questions exhaustively and a general level of intelligence should be determined by some objective method. It has also been proposed that there should be open book system as far as examinations are 
concerned. It is based upon the presumption that only those who know the subject will able to answer the questions properly, others cannot. Similarly another suggestion regarding the reforms in the examinations system is to have spaced assessment of the candidate. It is persuance of this suggestion that semester system was introduced in some of the universities of Pakistan. But these reforms have not been able to work properly and it is still to be seen, when other reforms are brought about in the system of examinations.

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Examinations

Outline 1-Judge the knowledge 2-Scale of measuring intelligence 3-Healthy competition 4-Fair selection in jobs 5-Cramming 6-De...

Antartica (World’s largest continent)

Abdullah 0 largest continents Thursday, March 20, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;">Largest continents</span> </span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Antartica </span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, larger than Europe and Australia, but  98 percent of it is under ice. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"></span><span style="font-size: large;">Antarctic population</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">The Antarctic population is made up mostly of scientists, pilots and other specialists there to do research in the unique polar environment.

About 3000 people live in Antarctica in the summer, but less than 500 stay all through the bitter winter. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> McMurdo </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The biggest community in

Antarctica is McMurdo which is home to up to 1200 people in summer and has cafes, a cinema, a church and a nuclear power station. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">McMurdo</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">People and supplies reach McMurdo either on ice-breaker ships that smash through the sea ice, or by air.

McMurdo settlement was built around the hut the British polar explorer Captain Scott put up on his 1902 expedition to the South Pole.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Amundsen-Scott base</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The Amundsen-Scott base is located directly underneath the South Pole.

Antarctica has a few valuable mineral resources including copper and chrome ores. There is coal beneath the Transarctic Mountains, and oil under the Ross Sea. Under the Antarctic Treaty of 1961, 27 countries agreed a ban on mining to keep the Antarctic unspoiled. They allow only scientific research. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> Penguins </span></h3>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Penguins on Antartica</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Emperor penguins are among the few large creatures that can survive the hitter Antarctic winter. They breed on the ice cap itself. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span></h3>
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Antartica (World’s largest continent)

Largest continents Antartica Antarctica is the fifth largest continent, larger than Europe and Australia, but 98 percent of it is u...

Australia(Large continent)

Abdullah 0 largest continents Thursday, March 20, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Australia</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Australasia is a vast region that includes<b> islands </b>with huge <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/worlds-glaciers-and-ice-ages.html" target="_blank"><b>glaciers </b></a>spread over much of the Pacific <b>Ocean</b>. The land area is 8,508,238 sq km. However the total sea area is much, much bigger.  Australia is the only country in the world which is also a continent in its own right.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>New Guinea </b></span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The largest island is New Guinea which has a total area of 787,878 sq km. Fraser Island, off Queensland, Australia, is the worlds largest sand island with a sand dune 120 km long.

Australasia is mostly<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/worlds-regions.html" target="_blank"><b> tropical</b></a>, with<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b> temperature</b>s</a> averaging 30°C in the north of Australia, and slightly lower on the islands where the<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2013/12/oceans-of-world.html" target="_blank"><b> ocean </b></a>keeps the land cool.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">New zealand </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> New Zealand is only a few thousand kilometres from the Antarctic Circle at its southern tip. As a result of occupying this position New Zealand has only mild summers and cold winters.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Mt Wilhelm</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Australasia’s highest peak is Mt Wilhelm on Fapua New Guinea, 4300 m high. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Great Barrier Reef</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest living thing, 2027 km long. It is the only structure built by animals that is visible from space. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Australia was the first continent to break off from Pangaea  about 200 million years ago, and so has developed its own unique wildlife. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Indian - Australian plate</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Australia sits on the Indian - Australian plate<b>,</b> which is moving very slowly north away from Antarctica. New Zealand sits astride the boundary with  Apart from the landmass of Australia, the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/plates-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>Pacific plate</b></a>. much of Australasia is open water.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Australia’s population </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The Aborigines make up 1.8 percent of Australia’s population today, but they were the first inhabitants. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Aborigine</span> </span></h4>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The word aborigine comes from the Latin ab origine, which means ‘from the start’.

Aborigine <b><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/worlds-mountains.html" target="_blank">cave</a> </b>paintings and tools have been found in Australia dating back to at least 45,000 years ago. The Kooris or Aborigines of Australia spread right across the Pacific many thousands of years ago and were probably the first inhabitants of <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/south-americalargest-continents-of-world.html" target="_blank"><b>America</b></a> as well.

British people and Irish began to settle in Australia about 200 years ago.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> They now form the majority of the population, along with other white <b>Europeans</b>.

Many of the earliest settlers in Australia were convicts, transported from Britain for minor crimes.  Many Australians have ancestral roots in the British Isles. British and Irish settlers drove the Aborigines from their land and 60 percent now live in cities.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> After hard campaigning some Aboriginal sacred sites are being returned to them, with their original names. Ayers Rock is now known as Uluru. A famous trial in 1992 returned to Aborigine Eddy Mabo land on Murray Island first occupied by his ancestors before the Europeans arrived.

Many recent immigrants to Australia are from Southeast<b> <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/asia-worlds-largest-continents.html" target="_blank">Asia</a></b>, Serbia, Croatia and Greece. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/important-cities-of-world.html" target="_blank"><b>Sydney</b></a> is Australia’s biggest and oldest city. Most inhabitants have British ancestry, but other Europeans are settling there, as well as Asians. Several thousand Aborigines live there too.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;"> Uluru or Ayers <b>Rock</b></span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Australia’s most famous landmark is Uluru or Ayers <b>Rock</b>, the biggest monolith (single block of stone) in the world, 348 m high and 9 km around. Uluru is the tip of a huge bed of coarse sand laid down in an inland sea some 600 million years ago.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">Lake Eyre</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Lake Eyre is Australia’s lowest point, 15 m below sea level. It is also its biggest lake, but it is normally dry and fills only once every 50 years or so.

The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest structure made by living things. Nullarbor plain is a vast, dry plain in southern Australia. Its name comes from the Latin nulla arbor (‘no tree’). </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Shark bay </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Shark Bay is famous for its sharks and dolphins. Shark Bay is also famous for its stromatolites, the world’s oldest fossils, dating back 3.5 billion years. These are pizza-like mats made by colonies of blue-green algae. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">The Murray-Darling <b>River</b></span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The Murray-Darling <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/worlds-rivers.html" target="_blank"><b>River</b></a> is Australia’s longest river (2739 km long). The Great Barrier Reef is a coral reef off the coast of Queensland in northwest Australia. The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s biggest coral reef, over 2000 km long.

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Australia(Large continent)

Australia Australasia is a vast region that includes islands with huge glaciers spread over much of the Pacific Ocean . The land area i...

Asia (World’s largest continents)

Abdullah 0 largest continents Thursday, March 20, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Asia </span></h2>
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<span style="font-size: large;">South Asia </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Asia is the world’s largest continent, stretching from Europe in the west to Japan in the east. It has a total area of 44,680,718 sq km.

Asia has huge climate extremes, from a cold polar climate in the north to a hot tropical one in the south.

Verkhoyansk in Siberia has had temperatures as high as 37°C and as low as -68°C. The Himalayas are the highest<b> mountains</b> in the world, with 14 peaks over 8000 m high.

To the north are vast deserts, broad grasslands and huge coniferous forests. To the south are fertile plains and valleys and tropical jungles.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Northern Asia </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> India is on a separate plate that crashed into the north Asia plate 50 million years ago. It is piling up the Himalayas as it ploughs on northwards.Asia’s longest river is China’s Yangtze, 5520 km long.

Asia’s highest mountain is the world’s highest - Mt Everest, or Sagarmatha, in Nepal at 8848 m.

The Caspian Sea between Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan is the world’s largest lake, covering 378,400 sq km.

There is a huge variety of people living in southern Asia from India to the Philippines. India has hundreds of different ethnic groups speaking 30 languages and 1652 dialects.

Indonesia also has many different ethnic groups and over 400 different languages and dialects. In Cambodia, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar and Sri Lanka, people are mostly Buddhists.

In Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan and Bangladesh, people are mostly Muslim.In India, 81 percent of people are Hindus.

The word Hindu comes from the Indus river where Dravidian people created one of the worlds great ancient civilizations 4500 years ago.

The official language of Vietnam is Vietnamese, though English is increasingly favoured as a second language. However, most Vietnamese children only learn to read and write by the time they are 15.By Hindu tradition people are born into social classes called castes. Members of each caste can only do certain jobs, wear certain clothes and eat certain food.

Indians are descended from both the Dravidians and from the Aryans who invaded and pushed the Dravidians into the south about 3500 years ago.The people of East Timor in Indonesia are mainly Christian. Before they became independent they were under the oppressive rule of the Indonesian military government

descended from both the Dravidians and from the Aryans who invaded and pushed the Dravidians into the south about 3500 years ago.

An estimated 86 percent of Russians are descended from a group of people called Slavs who first lived in eastern Europe 5000 years ago.East Slavs are the Great Russians (or Russians), the Ukrainians and the Belarusians (or White Russians).

West Slavs are eastern Europeans such-as Czechs, Poles and Slovaks.

South Slavs are people such as Croats, Serbs and Slovenes.

Slavs speak Slavic or Slavonic languages such as Russian, Polish or Czech.In the old Soviet Union there were over 100 ethnic groups. 70 percent were Slavs. Many of the rest were Turkic people such as Uzbeks, Kazakhs and Turkmen. Many of these now have their own nations.

Mongolian nomads live on the grassland steppes of central Asia, where they raise herds of goats, cattle and yaks. These nomads live in tents called yurts, which are traditionally covered with felt.

Slavic people are mainly Christian; Turkic people are mainly Islamic.

Many Turkic peoples such as the Kazakhs have a nomadic tradition that is fast vanishing.The Mongols were a people whose empire under the great Khans once spread far south into China and far west across Asia.

The Tatars are 4.6 million Turkic people who now live mainly in the Tatar Republic in the Russian Federation.

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Asia (World’s largest continents)

Asia South Asia Asia is the world’s largest continent, stretching from Europe in the west to Japan in the east. It has a total area ...

food of world

Abdullah 0 Article, Geography Sunday, March 16, 2014

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<span style="color: blue;"><span style="font-size: large;">Foods of different countries </span></span></h2>
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<span style="color: red;"><span style="font-size: large;">Food of India</span></span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Most Indians live on very plain diets - based on staples such as rice in the east and south, chapatis (flat wheat bread) in the north and northwest, and bajra (millet bread) in the Maharashtra region.

The staple foods are supplemented by dal (lentil porridge), vegetables and yoghurt.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Indian food</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Chillis and other spices such as coriander, cumin, ginger and turmeric add flavour.

Chicken and mutton are costly and eaten occasionally. Hindus will not eat beef and Muslims will not eat pork.

Many Indian meals are cooked in ghee (liquid butter). Ghee is made by heating butter to boil off water, then allowing it to cool and separate. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Ghee is scooped off the top.

Although many Indians have simple diets, India has an ancient and varied tradition of fine cooking.

Curries are dishes made with a sauce including the basic Indian spices - turmeric, cumin, coriander and red pepper. An Indian meal is rarely served on a single

Tamil kari or sauce plate. Instead, it comes in different dishes, which

diners dip into. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The basis of a curry is a masala,

a mix of spices, often blended with water or vinegar to make a paste.

Southern Indian vegetable curries are seasoned with hot blends like sambar podi.

Classic northern Indian Mughal dishes are often lamb, or chicken based, and seasoned with milder garam masala. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Chinese food </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The staple foods in China are rice and wheat with corn, millet and sorghum. In the south, the people eat more rice. In the north, they eat more wheat, as bread or noodles.Vegetables such as cabbage, bean and bamboo shoots are popular. So too is tofu (soya bean curd).

Favourite meats in China are pork and poultry, but the Chinese also eat a lot of eggs, fish and shellfish.A Chinese breakfast may

be rice and vegetables or rice porridge and chicken noodle soup or sweet pastries.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">A Chinese lunch may

include egg rolls or meat or prawn dumplings called dim sum.The Chinese were drinking tea at least 4000 years ago.

World geography A Chinese main meal may be stir-fried vegetables with bits of meat or seafood in a stock, with rice or noodles.

China has a long tradition of fine cooking, but styles vary.

Cantonese cooking in the south has lots of fish, crabs and prawn. Huaiyang has steamed dishes. Sichuann is spicy.

Beijing cooking in the north is the most sophisticated, famous for its Peking duck (cripsy roast duck).</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> favourite snack in China is fried

savoury dumplings. The Chinese often cook their food by stir-frying (stirring while hot

frying) in big round pans called woks. They eat the food from bowls with chopsticks and small china spoons, not with knives and forks.

Chinese drink tea without milk, typically made from jasmine leaves, oolong (green tea) or chrysanthemum. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Swidish food </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Bread play a major role in the traditional Scandinavian diet.

Gravadlax is a Swedish form of smoked salmon, usually served with pepper, dill and mustard sauce.

Traditionally, smoking fish such as salmon was a way of preserving it. Today, people still enjoy its unique flavour.

Smorgasbord is a Swedish speciality. It is a huge spread of bread and cold foods, including fish such as herring and salmon, and also cheeses.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Smorgasbord gets its name from the Swedish smorgds, meaning bread and bord, meaning table.

Every region in Germany has its own range of foods, but things like wurst (sausages), pretzels and sauerkraut (pickled cabbage) are widely popular.

A In the UK roast beef is served with Yorkshire pudding,

made from a batter of flour, eggs and milk. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">A Lager, a type of beer, is popular in northern Europe.

The German national drink is beer, and every October a beer festival is held in Munich.

England is well known for its stews and winter roasts, especially roast beef. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The most popular food for eating out is Indian.

An English speciality is fish (deep-fried in batter) and chips (fried slices of potato).

Vienna in Austria is known for its coffee houses where the Viennese sit and enjoy Kaffee und Kitchen (coffee and cakes).

Poland is famous for its rye bread . </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Pacific food </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Pacific food

Most populated places around the Pacific are located near the sea, so fish plays an important part in diets.

In Japan fish is often eaten raw in thin slices called sashimi, or cooked with vegetables in batter as a dish called tempura, often served with soy sauce. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> At home most Japanese eat traditional foods including rice and noodles, as well as fish, tofu and vegetables or eggs.

When out, many Japanese people eat American-style fast food.

The Japanese eat only half as much rice now as they did in 1960, as younger people prefer bread and doughnuts.

Younger Japanese people have a diet richer in protein and fat than their parents’, so grow 8-10 cm taller. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Pacific islanders ate fish like bonito and tuna and native plants like breadfruit, coconuts, sweet potatoes and taro. They made flour from sago palm pith.

Many islanders now eat mainly canned Western food and suffer malnutrition.  Lightly grilled or barbecued giant prawns and other seafood play a major role in Pacific food.  Filippino food is a mix of Chinese, Malay, American and Spanish. Adobo is chicken or pork in soy sauce.  </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Some Australians now often eat ‘fusion’ food which blends Asian with European cooking styles. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> European food </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Fish and bread play a major role in the traditional Scandinavian diet.

Gravadlax is a Swedish form of smoked salmon, usually served with pepper, dill and mustard sauce.  Traditionally, smoking fish such as salmon was a way of preserving it. Today, people still enjoy its unique flavour.

Smorgasbord is a Swedish speciality. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">It is a huge spread of bread and cold foods, including fish such as herring and salmon, and also cheeses.

Smorgasbord gets its name from the Swedish smorgds, meaning bread and bord, meaning table.

Every region in Germany has its own range of foods, but things like wurst (sausages), pretzels and sauerkraut (pickled cabbage) are widely popular. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The German national drink is beer, and every October a beer festival is held in Munich.  England is well known for its stews and winter roasts, especially roast beef. The most popular food for eating out is Indian. An English speciality is fish (deep-fried in batter) and chips (fried slices of potato). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Vienna in Austria is known for its coffee houses where the Viennese sit and enjoy Kaffee und Kitchen (coffee and cakes).

Poland is famous for its rye bread and thick A In the UK roast beef is served with Yorkshire pudding,

made from a batter of flour, eggs and milk.
 
A Lager, a type of beer, is popular in northern Europe.

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food of world

Foods of different countries Food of India Most Indians live on very plain diets - based on staples such as rice in the east and south...

America(Largest continents of world)

Abdullah 0 largest continents Saturday, March 15, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">South America</span></h2>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">South America</span></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">South America</span> is the worlds fourth largest continent. It has a total area of 17,814,000 sq km.
 The Andes<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/worlds-mountains.html" target="_blank"> <b>Mountains</b></a>, which run over 4500 km down the west side, are the world’s longest mountain range.
 The heart of South America is the vast <b>Amazon</b> rainforest around the Amazon <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/worlds-rivers.html" target="_blank"><b>River</b></a> and its tributaries. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The south east is dominated by the huge grasslands of the <b>Gran Chaco</b>, the Parppas and Patagonia.
No other continent reaches so far south. South America extends to within 1000 km of the <b>Antarctic</b> zoneCircle. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Three-quarters of South America is in the high Andes are large<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/worlds-regions.html" target="_blank"><b> zones</b></a> of cool, temperate climate.
Quito, in Ecuador is called the
‘Land of Eternal Spring. A South America's  triangular shape gives
<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>temperature</b></a> never drops below 8°C 
at night, and never climbs above 22°C 0f the continents during the day.
The highest volcanic<b> </b>peak in South America is Aconcagua, 6960 m high.
Eastern South America was joined to western Africa until the Atlantic began to open up 90 million years ago.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The Andes have been built up over the past 60 million years by the collision of the South American plate with both the Nazca plate under the <b>Pacific<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2013/12/oceans-of-world.html" target="_blank"> Ocean</a> </b>and the<b> Caribbean<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/plates-of-earth.html" target="_blank"> plate</a></b>. The subduction of 'the Nazca plate has created the world’s highest active <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/volcanic-erruption.html" target="_blank"><b>volcanoes</b></a> in the Andes. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">North America </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Eighty-two percent of the population of North America are descendants of immigrants from Europe.

Among the smaller groups 13 percent

are black, 3 percent Asian and one percent are American Indians.

Hispanics are descended from a mix of white, black and American Indian people from Spanish-speaking countries of Latin America such as Mexico,

Puerto Rico and Cuba. 12 percent of the US population is Hispanic.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 92 percent of the population of the USA was born there. Many new immigrants are Hispanic.

The original peoples of North America were the American Indians who were living here for thousands of years before Europeans arrived.

A The original peoples of North America were the Indians, but they have been overwhelmed by European settler.</span></div>

America(Largest continents of world)

South America South America South America is the worlds fourth largest continent. It has a total area of 17,814,000 sq km. The A...

Tauhid(The first principal of Islam)

Abdullah 0 Article Thursday, March 13, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Tauhid </span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">The first principle of Islam is belief in the Oneness and Unity of Allah. This is known as Tauhid.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Allah (Tauheed)</td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: large;">This means that Allah is One, the Supreme Being, the Creator, the Master of the entire Universe, the Highest in authority and rank and, therefore, exclusively worthy of worship.
All the prophets of Allah preached about the Unity of Allah and declared that all things and human beings are His creations and subordinate to Him. Therefore, He alone is worthy of worship. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">“There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet.” </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The main emphasis of the Quran is upon the principle of Tauhid. There are several verses in the Quran which highlight this concept. The most brief expression of this principle is to be found in Surah Ikhlas which says: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">“Say: He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, the Absolute; He begetteth not, nor is He begotten. And there is no one like unto Him.”</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> 112:1-4 </span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Allah is single</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Unity of Allah means that
 Allah is One and does not have partners. He is Single and Unique. He is incomparable, has no children, nor any parents.
'Allah' is the personal name of that Necessary Being
Whose non-existence is inconceivable. He comprises all the attributes of
perfection and is free from, or above, or overrides all kinds of
imperfections. Allah  is neither composed of
any elements, nor does He have any partner, nor has He any
resemblance to anything. This is a response to those who asked about
Allah whether He is made of gold or silver . </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">People turn to Allah for fulfillness </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Allah is He to whom the people turn for the fulfilment
of their desires and needs.All people depend on him, but he does not
depend on any one.' </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">No one similar to Allah </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There is no analogy between Allah, the Creator, and His creation.
Allah Himself has no children, nor is He the child of anyone. There
is no one in the entire universe, nor ever was, nor ever can be, who is
similar to Allah  in His
attributes, works and powers in any degree whatsoever.
He is Matchless and Self-Sufficient and  is All-Knowing, All-Wise and All-Powerful. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">He is the First and the Last. He has no equal because He possesses attributes which no other being can claim to possess and is incomparable in power, knowledge and all other faculties which the human mind can conceive of.
No one can do the work which Allah has done or may do. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Allah created universe </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">He created the entire universe and is its Controller, Master and Sustainer.
When we ponder over the universe, we think of a Creator, because such an organised and well co-ordinated world could not have come into existence on its own. Observation reveals a harmonious order and systematic arrangement in the universe.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Perfect organization of universe </span></h3>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> The <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/sun-and-its-rays.html" target="_blank"><b>sun</b></a> and the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/moon-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>moon</b></a> rotate within their respective <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/what-are-planets.html" target="_blank">orbit</a>s while the night and day strictly follow their fixed schedule. All things have been created in a given proportion with perfect organisation.simply if we see the<b> <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/our-lovely-planetearth-creation-origin.html" target="_blank">creation of earth</a></b> ,it is amazing.</span></div>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Accurate balance of universe</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> This accurate balance and arrangement of the universe proves that there is a Supreme Being who maintains this harmony and equilibrium. If there were several gods, there would have been a conflict leading to chaos and confusion in the universe.
Allah is the Creator, Nourisher and Provider of all His Creations, it is vital that we should avoid associating Him with any other being or object and submit and pray only to Him. We should have firm faith in Him and obey His Commands that He sent to us through His last prophet, Hazrat Muhammad(pbuh).

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Tauhid(The first principal of Islam)

Tauhid The first principle of Islam is belief in the Oneness and Unity of Allah. This is known as Tauhid. Allah (Tauheed) ...

Common diseases (part 2)

Abdullah 0 Diseases Wednesday, March 12, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Influenza</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Influenza is an illness affecting upper respiratory tract .</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Symptoms of Influenza </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Symptoms
 of the disease are fever, headache, pain in the limbs watering of eyes 
and running of nose and it is associated with sore throat. ' </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causative Agent of Influenza</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Different strains of viruses are responsible for causing the disease.

The disease is spread by droplet infection (cough, sneezing, and breath). </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Treatment and Control  of Influenza</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There
 is no particular treatment of the disease. The patient develops 
immunity and recovers. Rest is the only immediate treatment. Disease can
 be controlled by keeping patient away from other people. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Measles</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Symptoms of measles </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Measles is a very infectious and worldwide disease of children. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The
 disease starts with fever with cold, cough and a watery discharge from 
the eyes. On the third day rashes appear first on the face and" then 
spread over the whole body. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causative Organism of measles</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The
 causative organism is a virus, which is air born and is inhaled in 
droplets. The disease spreads through the discharge from eyes and nose, 
which becomes air-born and spreads rapidly. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Treatment and Control  of measles</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> There
 is no specific treatment. Child develops immunity and the signs and 
symptoms of the disease disappear after seven days. The child should be 
given plenty of drink especially milk.

It is difficult to control the disease because it is highly infectious 
as the patient becomes infectious about 2 days before the symptom of the
 disease develop. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Poliomyelitis</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Poliomyelitis is most common among the children but young and old people can also become its victims.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Symptoms </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">It begins slowly. 
The sufferer has very high fever, headache, nausea, fits and stiffness 
of limbs. In severe cases, the virus attacks the nerve fibers of the 
spinal cord causing paralysis of the limbs and muscles of the 
respiratory tract, sometime proving fatal, apart from permanent 
disabilities.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Treatment and Control of Polio</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">There are two polio vaccines; </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">sabin vaccine </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">salk vaccine. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Sabin vaccine</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Sabin vaccine
 is more common and is given orally in the form of drops. Two or three 
drops are given to infants during their first year which provides life 
long protection against polio by developing active immunity against it. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Salk vaccine</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Salk vaccine is injected in to the body but it is not being practiced in our country. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causative Organism of polio</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Poliomyelitis
 is caused by virus, which is transmitted by infected water. It is also 
transmitted by droplet infection during coughing and sneezing, of the 
patient. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">AIDS (Acquired immune Deficiency Syndrome) </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> AIDS is a disease in which body’s immune system, the system which protects our body against infections, is destroyed. </span><br />
<h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Symptoms of AIDS </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The body becomes unable to protect itself against many other diseases i.e. immune deficiency develops. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causative Organism of AIDS</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The causative organism is a virus called HIV . </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Signs and Symptoms of AIDS</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The
 word syndrome is used in AIDS because it is a disease with many 
symptoms occurring at the same time. The patient may suffer from chronic
 fever, severe diarrhoea lasting for months, pneumonia etc. and even 
cancer. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Causes of AIDS </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> It is usually transmitted by

relationship with an infected person.

Blood transfusion from infected person. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> By sharing contaminated injection needles. For example when drug addicts share their used syringes. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">By using contaminated razors, surgical and dental

instruments etc.

Virus may pass from the infected mother to the foetus during pregnancy. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Prevention and Control of AIDS</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">AIDS can be prevented by talking following measures

.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">By keeping to one’s own partner. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">By avoiding drug abuse as drug addicts share hypodermic needless.

By using disposable syringe.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">                common diseases (part 1)  <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/some-common-diseases-and-antibiotics.html" target="_blank"> Previous </a></span></div>

Common diseases (part 2)

Influenza Influenza is an illness affecting upper respiratory tract . Symptoms of Influenza Symptoms of the disease are fever, heada...

THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT(part 1)

Abdullah 0 Article, social study Sunday, March 09, 2014

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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT </span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;">The Pakistan Movement did not start abruptly. It grew out of necessity, slowly and gradually.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> SIMLA DEPUTATION </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Deputation of Muslims known as ‘Simla Deputation’ Ied_by Sir Aga Khan met Lord Minto who was then Viceroy of India on October 1, 1906 and expressed the concern of the Muslims of India over the situation and also impressed upon him to look into the genuine demands of the Muslims. The Viceroy promised to sympathetically and judiciously consider the Muslim viewpoint. It was probably the result of these efforts that the Muslims were granted the right of separate electorate in the Minto-Moriey Reforms of 1909.

When Indian National Congress was fomed in 1885 which was an overwhelmingly Hindu body. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advised the Indian Muslims to stay away from it. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">ALL INDIA MUSLIM LEAGUE </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The Muslims of India had no political organization of their own, therefore in 1906 they decided to form a political party known as All India Muslim League.

In 1913 Quaid-e-Azam joined the Muslim League and did his best to bridge the gulf between the Hindus and the Muslims Which won him the title of "Ambessador of Hindu-Muslim Unity”

Quaid-e-Azam continued his efforts to bring Hindus and Muslims closer. Thus, there was a much greater need of Hindu-Muslim unity. The leaders of the two communities got together at Lucknow in 1910 and drew up a document which was.subsequently known as the ‘Lucknow Pact..’

It was agreed that in Hindu majority provinces, Muslims would get- more representation than Hindu population warranted.

The existence of Muslim League, as the sole representative political

organization of the Muslims of the sub-continent, was recognized by the Hindus and the Indian National Congress</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> MUSTAFA KAMAL PASHA </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Luckily, Mustafa Kamal Ataturk' came on the scene and proved to be a man of destiny. His.personal courage, devotion to motherland and unquestioned leadership bore fruit. The Greeks were given a severe beating and through a treaty between Turkey and the European powers most.of the restrictions on Turkey Were withdrawn. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> ROWLATT ACT</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> After World War I, the British Government- in India 'apprehending uprising against the agreement because it had not kept its promises made during the war with the Muslims of India, enacted a law known as Rowlatt Act by which any person could be imprisoned without filing a suit against him. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">CONSTITUTIONAL REFORMS</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The.British Government introduced constitutional reforms in India in 1919.

One of the provisions of the Reforms of 1019 was that the Government would setup every ten years, a commission to assess the political and social conditions of India . </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">SIMON COMMISSION </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The British Government in 1927.sent a Commission known as Simon Commission under John Simon.

The Simon Commission was received everywhere with black flags. It failed miserably

The British Secretary of India Lord Birkenhead got annoyed at the failure of the Simon Commission and threw a challenge to Indian leaders to an agreed Constitution for the consideration of the British Government. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">NEHRO REPORT</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> After this challenge all the political parties got together at Delhi under the chairmanship of Moti La! Nehru. Meetings were frequently held among leaders and at the end, a report was produced, which is known as ‘Nehru Report. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">                                      <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/the-famous-fourteen-points-of-quaid-e.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #274e13;"><b>   Next.............. part 2</b></span></a></span></div>

THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT(part 1)

THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT The Pakistan Movement did not start abruptly. It grew out of necessity, slowly and gradually. SIMLA DEPUTATION ...

Thermometer

Abdullah 0 biology, How to make Saturday, March 08, 2014

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<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> How to make thermometer</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">A thermometer is a specific instrument used to measure how hot or cold something is.</span><br />
<table align="center" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOM3PZxfHb_ucshHjlIVR3ezMoAvCZeey5kfZZHJ1S_ZwyeYNML7hQqI0I6BttmWJp_KX7UTMtsMgyqKzOhoASQ-tazBIbze5eSOJ3y-rtuuzMRmbAeGQg9_xH12pcf9y6mHr0IFJoGCE/s1600/thermometer.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="51" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjOM3PZxfHb_ucshHjlIVR3ezMoAvCZeey5kfZZHJ1S_ZwyeYNML7hQqI0I6BttmWJp_KX7UTMtsMgyqKzOhoASQ-tazBIbze5eSOJ3y-rtuuzMRmbAeGQg9_xH12pcf9y6mHr0IFJoGCE/s1600-rw/thermometer.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">thermometer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> We can measure the air on a hot summer's day; we can measure body<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b> temperature </b></a>or even the water temperature of a swimming pool. Thermometers are used in numerous ways. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">To make your very own thermometer, first assemble the materials listed below. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Manual thermometer

Materials needed:</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1. a narrow necked bottle (a small soda bottle works well) </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2. a straw </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">3 some clay </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 4 food colouring </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 5- Hot plate </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6- Water </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7- A pot </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8- Ice cubes </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Procedure to make thermometer</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Take your narrow necked bottle and fill it about 3/4 full of water. Add a few drops

of food colouring and shake gently, being careful to cover the opening to avoid a spill.

Place a straw in the bottle submerging one end in the colourec water. Use clay to hold the straw in place. It is essential that there is an airtight seal between the straw and the bottle so be sure' mold the clay careful.</span><br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4Rg4PCsRlNdyh5xucByjpruDRFeaclwUGiGeSCL-4iZvvir3kSTXU_OuOPNxRtYfyLpN3JUrXYRbhRJEiExr6whBxHB63W4rOYr0KQIixG6OPND8pv7dxkd9EHM13zIU0l5EZFdzPAvQ/s1600/thermometer.bmp" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="288" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj4Rg4PCsRlNdyh5xucByjpruDRFeaclwUGiGeSCL-4iZvvir3kSTXU_OuOPNxRtYfyLpN3JUrXYRbhRJEiExr6whBxHB63W4rOYr0KQIixG6OPND8pv7dxkd9EHM13zIU0l5EZFdzPAvQ/s1600-rw/thermometer.bmp" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">How to make thermometer</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Now put your bottle in a pot of water and place it on a hot plate. Heat the water in the pot to the boiling point.

Record what happens now.

Next remove the bottle from the pot. Use an oven mitt so yoi don't burn yourself. Allow the bottle to cool somewhat. Now place the bottle back in the pot. Surround it with ice cubes and observe the results.</span><br />
<br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Thermometer </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Thermometer

it is an instrument to measure temperature of body and also atmosphere.

It consists of a capillary tube, attached with this bulb.

In an ordinary thermometer, the thermal characteristics of expansion and contraction of<a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/mercury-and-pluto-planets.html" target="_blank"> <b>mercury</b></a>( Mercury ialso name of a planet which moves around the sun like our <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/01/our-earth-and-universe.html" target="_blank"><b>earth</b></a>) is used to measure the temperature. Due to narrow bone of capillary tube, a small change in the volume of mercury becomes significantly visible.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> Establishing a temperature scale:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> For establishing a temperature scale we need two standard temperature.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 1-Boiling point of water </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 2-Melting point of water</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> In order to find out the position of mercury thread in the capillary tube of a thermometer at the melting point of ice, we place its bulb in a vessel containing small pieces of melting ice after some time, the mercury thread becomes stationary at a certain point in the capillary tube.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> This point is marked by a file.

This mark indicates the temperature of the boiling point of ice.

In order to find out the position of mercury thread at the boiling point of water, the bulb of the thermometer is placed in steam above boiling water at one atmospheric pressure. The mercury thread rises and finally comes at rest at a certain point which is marked by a files.

The work indicates the temperature of boiling point of water.

Different scales of temperature measurement have been formed, which are as follows. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Celsius scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Fahrenheit scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Kelvin scale </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> <b>Celsius Scale:</b> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On this scale, the mark corresponding to melting point of ice is denoted as 0°C and that corresponding to boiling point of water as 100°C. The distance between these two marks is divided in 100 equal parts. Each part indicates one degree calcium (1°C)- According to size of this degree, the temperature range of thermometer may extend below 0°C and above 100°C.

1-Fahrenheit </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 2-Celsius </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> 3-Kelvin </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On this scale, the mark indicating the melting point of water is denoted as 32°F and the mark for boiling point of water as 212°F.

The distance between the two mark is divided into 180° equal parts. Each part is know as one degree Fahrenheit (1 °F). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> If a certain temperature reads C in Celsius scale and F in Fahrenheit scale, the two readings are related as

By the help of this equation the reading of a temperature in Celsius scale can be converted into Fahrenheit scale and vice-versa.

Kelvin Scale:

-273°C is the lowest possible temperature. In Kelvin scale this temperature is denoted by oK. The size of division in Kelvin scale is the same as that in Celsius scale. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Thus the melting point of ice in Kelvin scale is 273K and the boiling point of water is 373 K.

If C° is the value of a certain temperature in Celsius scale, its equivalent value T in Kelvin scale is given by T = C°+273

Note the small circular symbol of degree is not used on Kelvin scale.

When water is cooled down, its volume decreases. This continues upto 4°C. When it

cooled further down, its volume starts increasing and its density decreases. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Since the

temperature of ice of 0°C, therefore its density is less than that of water. This is why the ice floats on the surface of water.

Give examples of thermal expansion from daily life.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Following are the examples of thermal expansion from daily life.

1-Overhead telephone or electricity wires between two poles are given a certain amount of sag so that they can contract in winter without snapping. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2-Two sections of a railway track are not joined together by welding. Instead they are laid with gaps between them.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Using fish plates fastened by nuts and bolts which are able to slide along the oval holes of the plates. When the rails expand or contract, they slide along the fish plates, thus preventing the buckling of tracks. If there are no gaps, the expansion of the rail will cause it to buckle

Iron girders are used in the construction of bridges and roof structure of big

buildings.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> One end of these girders is places on rollers so that it can move forward or backward

.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The temperature of:</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The center of the sun = 107K. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The out surface of <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/sun-and-its-rays.html" target="_blank"><b>sun</b></a> = 6x106K</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> When a bi-metallic plate is heated or cooled, it bends the curvature thus produced is

used to control the temperature of electric iron, ovens, refri gerator, air conditioners, fan heaters etc. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> On cooling, the volume of water decreases the decrease continues upto 4°C after which the water expands on further cooling. So, the density of water is maximum at 4°C.

Normally the size of solid objects increases on heating.

The volume of liquids increases on heating. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The volume of gases increases on heating.

In an ordinary thermometer the temperature is measured by using the property of thermal expansion and contraction of mercury. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">On Celsius scale the melting point of ice is denoted by 0°C and boiling point of water by 100°C. On the thermometer, the distance between the marks of

these two temperatures is divided in 100 equal parts. Each part is known as 1°C. On Fahrenheit scale, the melting point of ice is denoted by 32°F and the boiling point of water as 212°F. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">On the thermometer, the distance between the marks of these two temperature is divided in 180 equal parts and each part is known as one

degree Fahrenheit (1 °F). </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The lowest attainable temperature which is 273°C is denoted as °K in kelvin scale. The size of the division is the same as in Celsius scale. In this scale the melting

point of ice is 273 K and boiling point of water is 373 K.

If the value of a certain temperature is °C in Celsius scale, °F is Farenheit scale and T in Kelvin scale, these values can be converted into each other by the following

two equation.

°F= °C + 32 and T = °C + 273

</span></div>

Thermometer

How to make thermometer A thermometer is a specific instrument used to measure how hot or cold something is. thermometer We can m...

Fourteen Points of the Quaid-e-Azam

Abdullah 0 social study Saturday, March 08, 2014

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<h2 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Fourteen Points' of Quaid-e-  Azam</span></h2>
<span style="font-size: large;"> <table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqvbOKTkgXdYrsrtFg95O9-r6hEYU4n1hF07vm5fieCij-0uf_MfO3y_7G2mcEN_ZLW5XTu3aENt1HU3d_poYNIdniFSQyQRZNeB2XbJ5R1rJKa2zbyr4a0qB1cumkZT8jZuJ9pq4L2ug/s1600/radio.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="192" loading="lazy" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgqvbOKTkgXdYrsrtFg95O9-r6hEYU4n1hF07vm5fieCij-0uf_MfO3y_7G2mcEN_ZLW5XTu3aENt1HU3d_poYNIdniFSQyQRZNeB2XbJ5R1rJKa2zbyr4a0qB1cumkZT8jZuJ9pq4L2ug/s1600-rw/radio.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Quaid announces birth of pakistan</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">After the Nehru Report,<b> Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah</b> was disgusted and fully realized that the parting of ways of the two communities had to explain the viewpoint of the Muslims of the sub-continent. The Quaid - gave his own scheme which has gone down in history as the famous ‘Fourteen

Points’ of the Quaid which are given below </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">1- The form of the future constitution should be federal, with the residuary

powers vested in the provinces. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">2- A uniform measure of autonomy shall be granted to all provinces.

3-All legislatures in the country and other elected bodies shall be constituted on the definite principle of adequate and effective representation of minorities lovery without reducing the province.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">4-In the Central Legislature, Muslims representation shall not be less than one-third. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">5-Representation of communal group shall continue to .be, by means of separate electorate as at present. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">6- Any territorial redistribution that might at any time be necessary shall not, affect the Muslim majority in the Punjab, Bengal and NWFP Province. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">7- Full religious liberty, i.e., liberty of belief, worship and observance, propaganda, association and education shall be guaranteed to all communities.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">8- No bill or resolution or any part thereof shall be passed in any legislature or any other elected body if three-fourths of the members of that community in that particular body oppose such a part there of, on the ground that it would-be injurious to the, interests of that.

community or in-the alternative—streh other method-devised as  found feasible and practicable-to deal with 'sudrcases. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">9- Sindh should be separated from the Mumbai Presidency. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">10- Reforms should be-introduced in the NWFP and Balochistan on the same footing as in other provinces. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">11- Provision should be made in the Constitution giving Muslims an adequate share along with the other Lndians,

local self-governing bodies .</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">12-The constitution should embody adequate safeguards for the protection of

Muslim cplture and for the protection and promotion of Muslim education, language, religion, personal laws and Muslim -dmitahle institutions. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">13-  No cabinet, either Central or Provincial, should be formed without there being a proportion of a least one-third Muslita Ministers. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">14- No change shall be made in the constitution by the Central Legislature exrept with theromirrem. </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Presidential address of Allama Iqbal </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The annual meeting of the Muslim League which was   held at       Allahabad in

1930 was presided over by Allama Iqbal.

In his Presidential address he said that the NWFP, Punjab, Sindh and Balochistan should be combined in one State. Allama further said that there was no way out; it was destined to become an independent state because this was the only way'by which Muslims could live an honourable - life. They must- have a homeland so that they could preserve their culture, civilization and modes of worship.

Thus a forceful demand was put forward for an independent Muslim State.

The Allahabad address caught the imagination of the Muslim who started

working hard for the preservation of their rights and ultimate independence.  </span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-size: large;">
The First Round Table Conference</span> </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The First Round Table Conference was held in       London in December, 1930

which    was attended by prominent Muslim leaders but       the Congress stayed away.

Many issues were debated upon, but without any tangible results.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">  Second Round Table Conference:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Lord Irwin,  then Viceroy of India and Mr. Gandhi came to some agreement after which the Congress decided to attend the Second Round Table Conference.

It was decided that Sindh be separated from Mumbai and that reforms be introduced in NWFP on the lines they had been introduced in other provinces.

When the British Government-became convicted that the Hindus and Muslims could not offer an agreed formula they issued an ‘Award’ themselves in 1932. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">According to this Award known as Communal Award, the right of Muslims and other minorities to separate electorate was restored.

In the Communal Award the ‘Achhutes’ or ‘untouchables’ were treated as a distinct minority and given the right of separate electorate.</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Poona Pact </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Mr. Gandhi started a ‘fast unto death’ and put a lot of pressure on Mr. Ambedkar, the Achhut leader, to surrender the right of separate electorate. Mr. Ambedkar could not withstand the pressure and finally signed a treaty known as ‘Poona Pact’ and thus put many million Achhutes in the lap of Hindus.

The Third Round Table Conference was held in November, 1932. The Congress did not attend and the Quaid-e-Azam was not invited. Only reports of various committees were discussed and finalized in this conference.

Based on the recommendations of the Third Round Table Conference held in 1932, the British Government enacted a new law known as the Government of India Act, 1935.

The main features of the Government of India Act 1935 are given underneath:

This Act, provided for the Federal type of Government in the subcontinent. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The provinces were given autonomy.

Provincial Assemblies were given more powers.     ,

increase in Number of Members in the

Number of members in the Central Assembly was also increased. In 1939 when World War II started, the Viceroy of India also declared war against Germany. Since the Congress Ministries had not been consulted, they resigned in protest. At this, on the advice of the Quaid-e-Azam, the Muslims celebrated the “deliverance day”</span><br />
<h3 style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-size: large;">Deliverence day 23 March 1940 </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">.

In 1940, the annual meeting of the Muslim League was held at Lahore at the place in the Iqbal Park where today the Minar-e-Pakistan stands in its majestic glory to remind the whole world that determined people can cut shackles of slavery and win freedom in a span of only seven years.

Maulvi Fazle Haque, the famous leader from Bengal, moved the historic resolution in this meeting on March 23, 1940 which was unanimously passed. This resolution goes down in history by the name of Lahore Resolution or Pakistan Resolution

The Resolution demanded that Muslim States be set up in Eastern and North-Western parts of India where Muslims could live in peace, lead an independent life according to the principles of Islam and preserve their distinct civilization and culture.

The Resolution proved a great boon. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The Muslims of the sub-continent, under the dynamic leadership of the Quaid-e-Azam, became organized and solid like a rock. They forced the two enemies, the British and the Hindus, to accept the demand for an independent Pakistan.      .

The World War was still on and Germany had won initial, successes. The Indian sub-continent was showing signs of restlessness and concern. The British Government realized it and sent another mission, Cripps Mission under Sir

Stafford Cripps with new proposals on the ‘take it or leave it principle’.

The Mission met the leaders of various important political parties. Briefly, the British Government offered to grant freedom to the sub-continent after the end of the war. She would be a dominion under the British Crown and a Constitution would be prepared in which each Province would be a member of the Federation for at least ten years after which they could break away if they so desired.

The Muslim League rejected the proposals because no guarantee had be given that the rights of the Muslims would be safeguarded.

Congress also rejected the proposals but on different grounds. They thought that if the provision that a province could secede after ten years was accepted, then Pakistan would come into being after ten years, surely against their wishes, so the Cripps Mission-failed.

in 1944 Lord Wavell was appointed Viceroy of India. In 1949 he prepared ’a pian and called a meeting of all important leaders, at Simla. This Conference knowm as Simla Conference also failed because no decision could be arrived at regarding the appointment of Muslim members to Viceroy’s Council.

During the Simla Conference a demand for general elections was put forward from all quarters. At this the Viceroy announced general elections in the winter of 1945. In the Central Legislative Assembly all the Muslim seats were won by the Muslim League. In the Provincial elections held in the beginning of 1946, the Muslim League won about 90 per cent of the Muslim seats. This amply proved the rolaim of Muslim League to be the sole representative body of the Muslims of India. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Cabinent mission </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The British Cabinet decided to send another Mission consisting of Lord Pathic Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps and A.V. Alexander. This mission known as Cabinet Mission, also could not make the leaders of different political parties arrive at an agreed formula. In the absence of an agreement, the Mission presented their own formula of grouping Hindu majority provinces and Muslim majority provinces.  Congress and Muslim League also withdrew its support to the Cabinet Mission Plan. As a protest against the attitude of the British the Muslims returned all the titles conferred on them.      ,

Interim Government:

The British Government made a ludicrous move and asked Nehru to form the Government which he did in August, 1946. After some discussion, the League also decided to join the ‘Interim Government’. When the portfolios were allocated, Congress appropriated all the important portfolios itself and gave to the League nominees such portfolios as were either unimportant or the Congress thought that the Muslims would be unable to do well with them.

Liaquat Ali Khan, who was the Minister for Finance, made very intelligent move. He prepared a budget which was beneficial to the poor. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The Congress opposed the budget .

The British Prime Minister  announced the intention of the British Government to transfer power to the people of the sub-continent and also announced the appointment of Lord Mount-batten in place of Lord Wavell. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> When it was decided to partition Punjab and Bengal the British Governmevf appointed Sir Radcliff as the Chairman of the Boundary Commission. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">At last on August 14,1947 pakistan came into being. Quaid -e-Azam announced it on All India radio. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">                               <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/the-pakistan-movementpart-1.html" target="_blank"><span style="color: #38761d;"><b>  Previous ...........Part 1 </b></span></a></span></div>

Fourteen Points of the Quaid-e-Azam

Fourteen Points' of Quaid-e- Azam Quaid announces birth of pakistan After the Nehru Report, Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jin...

Galaxies

Abdullah 0 Astronomy Friday, March 07, 2014

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<b><span style="font-size: large;">The universe:</span></b></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Air, soil,<b> <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/rocks-of-earth.html" target="_blank">rocks</a></b>,<b> stars</b>, <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/what-are-planets.html" target="_blank"><b>planets</b></a> and all the objects present in space are called the Universe.

The universe is so vast that its vastness could not be measured so far. Our earth is just like a small particle in it.  </span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: large;"> Big bang theory: </span></b></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The scientists present the big bang theory for explaining the beginning of the universe. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">According to the theory: </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The whole matter of the universe was condensed at one place about 15 billion years ago. It was in the form of extremely huge and dense ball of hydrogen. A tremendous explosion occurred in this ball. This explosion is called “Big Bang”.

Due to this explosion, the whole condensed matter scattered far away in the.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> After this explosion (Big bang), the universe assumed the form of gigantic clouds of extremely hot, expanding and contracting gases, which, with the passage of time, scattered far away from each other.

After about one million years, these clouds of gases got frozen and started shrinking resulting in the formation of galaxies and stars.

These galaxies are moving away from the center and the universe is continuously expanding. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Nebulae:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> If we look at the sky during night without telescope, we see numerous stars. During night, some patches of dim light on the sky are also seen to us. These patches are called nebula.

Nebula is a Latin word which means “cloud”. Actually the huge clouds of gases and dust in space are called nebula. When these gases reflect the light of stars, then nebula looks illuminated. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The contracting and freezing of nebula forms stars.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><b>Galaxy</b> </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">A nebula consists of several billion stars.The family of stars is called “galaxy”. </span><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;"> Number of galaxies</span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> There are at least one billion galaxies in the universe and the universe is so vast that most of the galaxies are several hundred thousands light years away from each other, Hence, these galaxies look like dim bulbs of light in the sky. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Milky way Galaxy: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Our solar system is also a part of a galaxy, called “Milky Way Galaxy”

There are about 100 billion stars and numerous planets, which also include our earth, in the Milky Way galaxy!

What so ever a star we see without telescope is a part of this galaxy. The diameter of Milky Way galaxy is about one hundred thousand light years. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Blue Giant: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The temperature of stars is extremely high. A star whose <b>temperature</b> is greater than 15000°C is called blue giant. Such a star is extremely hot and it emits intense light.

For Example:

Deneb is a blue giant. Its temperature is usually is usually 15000°C. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Red Giant:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> A star whose temperature is less than 5000°C is called red giant. It is comparatively a cold star.

For Example: .

Bernard star is a red giant. Its temperature is usually 3200°C.

Arcturus is also a red giant whose temperature is about 4800°C. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">One light year</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> One light year is a distance which light covers within one year. The speed of light is 3xl05 Km per second. Light covers 9.48 x 10l2 Km in one years. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Small stars: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> In terms of size, stars ranging from one and half to three times bigger than the sun are called small stars.

In the core of stars, there is an often hydrogen and helium gas. The quantity of hydrogen is much more than helium. By burning these gases, light emits from stars. In the core of star, hydrogen gas is continuously converted into helium till the complete discharge of hydrogen gas from the core, the core of star after contraction is collapsed. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Red Giant: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> After the collapse previous one and then the star becomes red giant. For this happening, several billion years are spent. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">White dwarfs: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The outer layers of star while gradually expanding are converted into gases, and its size become small. This small star is called white dwarf. Its size is often equal to our Earth. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Red dwarf:</span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> After several hundred thousands years, white dwarf after gradually cooling down goes to dim. Meanwhile red light is emitted from the core the star. Such star is called red dwarf. The diameter of red dwarf ranges from 3000 kilometers to 50000 kilometers.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Black Dwarf: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> When red dwarf after having become frozen stops shining completely then such a dead star is called black dwarf. </span><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Massive stars: </span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> The stars three times bigger than the sun are called “massive stars”. In the core of these stars, hydrogen gas is continuously converted into helium. This process in massive stars is usually completed within 10 million years. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Red supergiant: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">At the complete discharge of hydrogen gas, massive stars become “red supergiant” and their size become 1000 times enlarger than the previous one. </span><br />
<b><span style="font-size: large;">Supernova: </span></b><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> In the next few hundred thousand years, the core of red supergaint suddenly collapses which creates a huge explosion, called “supernova”. And for the time being its light becomes much more than all other stars of the galaxy.

Neutron star:

If during supernova, the core of star is some how the sun, then the core of star contracts after freezing. And it converts into “neutron star”.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Characteristics of neutron star: ' </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">Neutron stars are very dense and their core contains neutrons only. These stars speedily revolve and emit light whereas the black holes are known by their extreme gravity. Their gravity is so much that even light cannot escape from it.

Diameter of neutron star:

The diameter of neutron star is usually 10 kilometer. Its core is extremely dense.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Mass of neutron atom: </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">.

One spoon mass of the material of its core is equivalent to one billion metric tones or even more than this.

Black hole:

If the mass of the core of star is three times bigger than the mass of the sun, then the core of <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2013/12/the-star-short-story.html" target="_blank"><b>star </b></a>contracts such a way that too much density comes on one point. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">It is called “black hole”. There are several hundred thousands black holes in the Milky Way galaxy.

Black hole is actually a last stage of the life of star. The diameter of the sun is 1392000 Kilometres. According to astronomers, at any stage if it is converted into a black hole, then its diameter will only remain 6 kilometre.

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Galaxies

The universe: Air, soil, rocks , stars , planets and all the objects present in space are called the Universe. The universe is so va...

Glaciers

Abdullah 0 Geography Sunday, March 02, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Ice ages</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Ice Ages are periods lasting millions of years when the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/our-lovely-planetearth-creation-origin.html" target="_blank">Earth</a> is so cold that polar ice caps grow huge. There are various theories about why they occur .

There have been four Ice Ages in the last 1000  years.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> The most recent Ice Age - called the Pleistocene Ice Age  began about 2 million years ago.In an Ice Age the weather varies between cold spells called glacials and warm spells called interglacials.

There were 17 glacials and interglacials in the last 1.6 million years of the Pleistocene Ice . </span></div>
<span style="font-size: large;">The people of the Ice Age risked their lives to hunt the fierce woolly mammoth. It was a good source of meat, skins, bones and ivory.

California may have looked something like this 18,000 years ago when it was on the fringes of an ice sheet. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Where Washington and London are today, the ice was 1.5 km thick 18,000 years ago.

Glaciers are <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/worlds-rivers.html" target="_blank"><b>river</b></a>s of slow- moving ice. They form in <b><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/worlds-mountains.html" target="_blank">mountain</a></b> regions when it is too cold for snow to melt.They flow down through valleys, creeping lower until they melt in the warm air lower down.Glaciers form when new snow falls on old. The new snow compacts the old snow into denser snow called firn.

The dense ice in glaciers is made from thousands of years of snow. As new snow fell, the old snow beneath it became squeezed more and more in a process called firnification,squeezed out so it looks like ice. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">As more snow falls, firn gets more compacted and becomes glacier ice flowing slowly downhill.

Where glaciours forms

Now a days glaciers form only in high mountains and towards the North and South Poles. In the Ice Ages glaciers were widespread and left glaciated landscapes in many places that are now free of ice.

crevasse

As glaciers move downhill, they bend and stretch, opening up deep cracks called crevasses. Sometimes these occur where the glacier passes over a ridge. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The biggest crevasse is often called the bergschrund. It forms when the ice pulls away from the back wall of the hollow where the glacier starts.

Where the underside of a glacier is warmish (about 0°C), it moves by gliding on a film of water, made as pressure melts the glacier’s base. This is basal slip.

Where the underside of a glacier is coldish (below 0°C), it moves as if layers are slipping over each other like a pack of cards. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">This is internal deformation.

Valley glaciers are glaciers that flow in existing valleys.

Cirque glaciers are small glaciers that flow from hollows high up.

Alpine valley glaciers form when several cirque glaciers merge.

Piedmont glaciers form where valley glaciers join as they emerge from the mountains.

Glaciers move slowly but their sheer weight and size give them enormous power to shape the landscape. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Over tens of thousands of years glaciers carve out winding valleys into huge, straight U-shaped troughs.

Glaciers may slice off tributary valleys to leave them ‘hanging’, with a cliff edge high above the main valley. Hill spurs (ends of hills) may also be truncated.

Cirques, or corries, are armchair-shaped hollows carved out where a glacier begins high up in the mountains. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> After an Ice Age, glaciers leave behind a dramatically altered landscape of deep valleys and piles of debris. Aretes are knife-edge ridges that are left between several cirques as the glaciers in them cut backwards. Drift is a blanket of debris deposited by glaciers. Glaciofluvial drift is left by the water made as the ice melts. Till is left by the ice itself. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Drumlins are egg-shaped mounds of till. Eskers are snaking ridges of drift left by streams under the ice. Moraine is piles of debris left by glaciers. Proglacial lakes are lakes of glacial meltwater dammed up by moraine. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Periglacial conditions are found on the tundra of northern Canada and Siberia and on nunataks, which are the hills that protrude above ice sheets and glaciers.

aping the land

0 When frozen soil melts it becomes so fluid that it can creep easily down slopes, creating large tongues and terraces. Frost heave is the process when frost pushes stones to the surface as the ground freezes.</span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> After frost heave, large stones roll down leaving the fine stones on top. This creates intricate patterns on the ground.On flat ground, quilt-like patterns are called stone polygons. On slopes, they stretch into stone stripes.

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Glaciers

Ice ages Ice Ages are periods lasting millions of years when the Earth is so cold that polar ice caps grow huge. There are various the...

Mountains

Abdullah 0 Geography Sunday, March 02, 2014

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<span style="font-size: large;">Mountain-building</span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">It is slow because <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/rocks-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>rocks</b> </a>flow like thick treacle. Rock is pushed up like a bow wave in front of a boat as one <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/plates-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>tectonic plate </b></a>pushes into another.

Satellite techniques show that the central peaks of the Andes and Himalayas are rising. The outer peaks are sinking as the rock flows slowly away from the ‘bow wave

Mountain-building is very active during orogenic (mountain-forming) phases that last millions of years.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Different orogenic phases occur in different places, for example the Alpine, Caledonian, Hercynian in Europe and the Huronian, Nevadian and Pasadenian in North <b><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/south-americalargest-continents-of-world.html" target="_blank">America</a></b>. The Caledonian was about 550 million years ago.

Mountain-building makes the <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/our-lovely-planetearth-creation-origin.html" target="_blank"><b>Earth</b></a>’s crust especially thick under mountains, giving them very deep ‘roots’. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> "As mountains are worn down, their weight reduces and the ‘roots’ float upwards. This is called isostasy".

A few high mountains are lone volcanoes, such as Africa’s Kilimanjaro, which are built by many eruptions.

Some volcanic mountains are in chains in volcanic arcs , such as Japan’s Fujiyama. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"> Most high mountains are part of great mountain ranges stretching over hundreds of kilometres.

Some mountain ranges are huge slabs of rock called fault blocks . They were forced up by quakes.

The biggest mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas and the Andes, are fold mountain ranges. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The height of mountains used to be measured from the ground, using levels and sighting devices to measure angles. Now mountains are measured more accurately using satellite techniques.

Satellite measurements in 1999 raised the height of the world’s highest peak,

Mt Everest in Nepal in the Himalayas, from 8848 m to 8850 m.

All 14 of the world’s peaks over 8000 m are in the Himalayas - in Nepal, China and Kashmir. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/temprature-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>Temperature</b></a>s drop 0.6°C for every 100 m you climb, so mountain peaks are very cold and often covered with <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/03/worlds-glaciers-and-ice-ages.html" target="_blank">ice</a>.

The air is thinner on mountains, so the air pressure is lower. Climbers may need oxygen masks to breathe. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">Caves in mountains </span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Caves are giant holes that run horizontally underground. Holes that plunge vertically are called potholes. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">The most spectacular caves, called caverns, are found in <a href="http://educational-wealth.blogspot.com/2014/02/rocks-of-earth.html" target="_blank"><b>limestone</b></a>. Acid rainwater trickles through cracks in the<b> rock</b> and wears away huge cavities. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The world's largest cave </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;"> The world’s largest known single cave is the Sarawak Chamber in Gunung Mulu in Sarawak, Malaysia. </span><br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">The longest cave of world </span></h3>
<span style="font-size: large;">The longest cave system is the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky,USA, which is 560 km long.

Many caverns contain fantastic deposits called speleothems. They are made mainly from calcium carbonate deposited by water trickling through the cave. </span><br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Stalactites are icicle-like speleothems that hang from cave ceilings. Stalagmites poke upwards from the floor.

The world’s longest stalactite is 6.2 m long. It is in the Poll an Ionain in County Clare, Ireland.

The world’s tallest column is the Flying Dragon Pillar in the Nine Dragons Cave, Guizhou, China.

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Mountains

Mountain-building It is slow because rocks flow like thick treacle. Rock is pushed up like a bow wave in front of a boat ...

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Antartica (World’s largest continent)

Australia(Large continent)

Asia (World’s largest continents)

food of world

America(Largest continents of world)

Tauhid(The first principal of Islam)

Common diseases (part 2)

THE PAKISTAN MOVEMENT(part 1)

Thermometer

Fourteen Points of the Quaid-e-Azam

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